Although many other possibilities exist, the Court of Theseus is most commonly placed in a setting that references classical Greece, such as this one.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Although no contemporary references tell us what parts Shakespeare performed as an actor in his own plays, theatrical tradition is that he specialized in Kingly roles and chorus figures. Recent, but not uncontroversial, stylometric studies suggest that he played Duke Theseus, a finding in keeping with that tradition. It also accords with other results implying Shakespeare often delivered the exposition as the first or second speaker in numerous plays.
The Court of Theseus. Drawing by Heath Robinson (1919)
public domain
Trumpet Flourish
In the early modern theater, plays usually began with a trumpet flourish to quiet the crowd. The formal entrance of a noble character was also usually marked with such a fanfare. This occasion, therefore, would seem doubly seem to call for a musical cue, although one is not indicated in any early text. Most modern productions insert one, however.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Elision: nuhp-shuhl [ˈnʌp ʃəl]
This, like most polysyllabic words in Shakespeare’s era, has enough elasticity to be pronounced in more than one form. To this day, the word is spoken in both two and three syllable versions. In this instance, the word scans as two syllables, in the form that is most widely recognized as “proper.” There is good reason to confirm by scanning the line, however. While the three-syllable scansion – nuhp-shoo-uhl – is generally held to be a corruption, it was not uncommon in Shakespeare’s time, and it is still widely employed in everyday speech. Shakespeare, himself, uses the longer form in this play at Unit 39, line 77.
Four days. Shakespeare's plays are often said to have a "double time scheme," which is a indirect way of saying that the literal references to time often do not add up logically, but in performance this does not occur to an audience. They are not keeping track. This play actually takes place over two days and two nights, but emotionally four days seems weightier in this first scene when the implication is time is dragging. Still, it is helpful if the actors delivering such lines do not give them too much emphasis. Why draw the audience's attention to this oddity?
Moon: Thematically, images of night, dreams, imagination and lunacy–all of which have strong associations with the moon—dominate this play. Shakespeare introduces this image body very quickly and it remains prominent throughout this short scene. These images are typically "target" words for actors, i.e. words that receive special emphasis and attention.
The Moon, from Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae
public domain
with'ring: with-ring [ˈwɪð rɪŋ]; Reduction of "withering" by elision to two syllables
Although appearing as a three-syllable word in almost all dictionaries, in everyday speech it is usually given only two, an effect Shakespeare uses here to achieve the meter.
rèvenue: rev-uhn-yoo [ˈrɛv ənˌyu]; First syllable accent of a word with variable pronunciation.
Although this case uses the familiar pronunciation, Shakespeare tends to prefer the archaic alternative with the accent on the second syllable. Compare to Lysander at line 158, below. Trained Shakespeareans know to scan this word in every usage.
nights] F
Most modern editions use the quarto reading, as this one does, but the Folio reading is a very sensible alternative because it makes the plural nights agree with the plural days.
Dream: A continuation of the themes and images introduced in line 3 (and the title, of course.)
New] Rowe; Now QF
Because of the context, the first identifiable editor of Shakespeare's works, Nicholas Rowe, proposed that this word should be "New," although all quartos and folios say "Now." The error arose, he reasoned, because a compositor had misread the manuscript. A handwritten "e" can look very much like an "o."
Although a few reading editions, including Chaudhuri in the Arden3, use "Now," this emendation is almost universally accepted in modern performance.
Split line: Line eleven is a one full iambic pentameter line, but it is split between two characters. Such lines are printed (as here) with the second half indented beyond the end of the first in a convention first used by the early editor, George Steevens in 1773. For actors, the conventional wisdom is that such lines should not be "broken." In other words, the second speaker must not leave a pause or space, but begin speaking immediately after the first speaker is finished, almost overlapping.
th'Athenᵞan: thuh-theen-yun [ðəˈθin yən]; Both a contraction and an elision of "the Athenian."
The+vowel rule, and elision:
Two operations are at work here that reduce this line from 12 to 10 syllables: First, as in almost all instances where the word "the" precedes a word starting with a vowel, the two words are contracted by eliminating one of the vowels. Second, the suffix "ian" is pronounced in its one-syllable form.
The full line is thus scanned: Stir up/ Th'Athen/ian youth/ to mer/riments
sp'rit: sprit [ˈsprɪt]; Elision of "spirit."
The word "spirit" is often allotted only one syllable in early modern poetry. It was interchangeable with the word "sprite." In Anglican liturgy, however, particularly when referring to the Holy Spirit, it has become common to elide the word to "sp'rit." Especially in Britain, that traditional solution for reducing "spirit" to one syllable also holds sway in cases like this where the word is describing an abstract quality.
Thesᵞus: thees-yuhs [ˈθis yəs]. Occasionally, as in this case, this character's name occupies only two syllables.
renownèd: ri-noun-ed [rɪˈnaʊn ɛd]; Sound the third syllable
Although expanded endings were already falling out of fashion in his time, Shakespeare often employed them for the sake of the meter.
They are marked throughout this edition by this typographical convention: èd
Egeus: Ehd-jee-us [ɛdˈʒi ʌs]; Conventionally this name is pronounced in two syllables as eej-us, but in this play it always scans using three.
"Stand forth, Demetrius" and "Stand forth, Lysander"] Rowe. These lines are rendered as stage directions in all quartos and folios, but based on scansion all modern editors agree these are lines that are to be spoken aloud.
"Stand forth, Demetrius" and "Stand forth, Lysander"] Rowe. See previous note.
This] F2; "This man," in QF, but the second word is extra-metrical. Most editors believe it was incorrectly assimilated from line 25, in a section that was already confused in the compositor's mind, per the previous note. The editorial correction from the Second Folio, published in 1632, is widely accepted.
We are apt to read "bewitched" as a metaphor, but Egeus' accusation is probably meant literally, whether or not it is accurate. This is just the first of many times in the play when love is thought to be caused by enchantment. Of course, in this case (as in many later ones) more mundane causes may well prove adequate explanations.
Oberon enchanting Tytania, Classic TheaterWorks, directed by Kurt Daw
Creative Commons 3.0
giv'n her: "Give ner" [ˈgɪv nɜr].
Here we encounter the problematic application of a "missing v." In Shakespeare's time the words "given her" would have been shortened to "gi'n her," like "beginner" without the first syllable, but because we no longer use this elision, doing so creates issues with intelligibility in our era. Contemporary performance practice is to subtly combined "given" with the following word by saying "Give ner" [ˈgɪv nɜr].
Feigning] Brooks; Faining is used in QF for both instances in the line. This edition follows Harold Brooks in modernizing the spelling of only the second occurrence to make the punning nature clearer to the performer. (Of course, in the spoken theatre these different spellings of homophones are no longer visible and must be acted.)
stol'n: stohln [ˈstoʊln]; Elision of "stolen" to one syllable.
While this looks, and feels, odd at first, it is still common in everyday speech to hear this word pronounced as one syllable. Doing so creates no intelligibility problems.
th'impression: thim-presh-uhn [ðɪmˈprɛʃ ən]; (the+vowel rule)
As is almost always the case when the word "the" is followed by a word that begins with a vowel sound, the two words contract together reducing their length by one syllable.
Although the line can be, and often is, incorrectly scanned as an Alexandrine (i.e. iambic hexameter), applying the two shortenings indicated for this line will make the line scan as regular iambic pentameter:
And stol'n/ th'impress/ion of/ her fan/tasy
obedᵞence: oh-beed yuhns [oʊˈbid yəns]. Although appearing in most dictionaries as a four-syllable word, here the final two syllables bleed together.
Be't: beet [bit]. Contraction: The two words occupy only one syllable.
The early modern texts print this in a way (Be it so) that implies an anapest, a three-syllable measure consisting of two unaccented syllables followed by an accented one. Literary scholars are very reluctant to emend this to a contraction, but it is standard performance practice.
How seriously this demand by Egeus for his own daughter's death is played determines the tone of the rest of the play. Often, it is treated as a "fairy tale" condition of comedy, and Egeus as a blustering (but unthreatening) stock figure out of Roman comedy. It was not an empty threat in Shakespeare's time, however, as can be seen by how he treats Juliet's refusal to marry Paris in another play written almost simultaneously with this one. Unfortunately, even in our time it is still not unknown for parents to wish their children were dead for seeking love from a source their parents deplore. The law no longer assists them, but parents have certainly been known to disinherit children for inter-faith, interracial, or same-sex romances with sometimes dire consequences. A range of readings, from very light to very, very dark are possible with Midsummer, but the direction is usually set in this moment.
Immedᵞately: ih-meed-yit-lee [ɪˈmid yɪt li]; The third and fourth syllables bleed together.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]; One syllable
This may look odd, but is (in fact) more common in everyday speech than the two-syllable pronunciation.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
This is the first example of what will become an extensive image body in this play related to loving and looking, of which "love is blind" is the most familiar proverbial example.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]; One syllable
This may look odd, but is (in fact) more common in everyday speech than the two-syllable pronunciation.
"I know not by what power I am made bold..."
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
This sudden alternative (to become a nun) is evoked without explanation. Theseus seems simply to be softening the choices. In the nineteenth century Hermias often swooned after "die the death," provoking some minor mercy. In modern productions, Theseus often does so in reaction to Hippolyta's reactions instead.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Wheth'; performance practice suggests hweth [ˈʰwɛð].
The rule by which medial Vs are sometimes eliminated also occasionally applies, as here, to words with TH in the middle.
This is the knottiest scansion problem in the act. The word "whether" occupies only one syllable, but there is no common agreement about how to make it do so. Originally, it was elided to “whe’er,” which confusingly sounds exactly like “where.” Probably just omitting the second syllable is the most intelligible for a modern audience: hweth [ˈʰwɛð]. A very common "solution," however, is to pronounce the word fully and ignore the irregularity that causes.
liv’ry: liv-ree [ˈlɪv ri]; Elision of “livery” from three to two syllables.
As in the opening scene, the moon is here associated with the repression of desire and sexuality. Freudian readings might suggest that is the cause of its association with lunacy.
blessèd: bles-ed [ˈblɛs ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Although still less preferred than the one-syllable alternative, this is one of the few expanded endings that have survived into modern times and is still in use.
earthlᵞer: urth-leer [ˈɜrθ lɪər]; The final two syllables of "earthlier" bleed together.
The image here is of the preservation of the rose beyond its natural lifetime by distilling its essence into perfume, a comparison more fully explored in Sonnet 5. The implication is that the chaste die unloved, childless and leaving no legacy.
with'ring: with-ring [ˈwɪð rɪŋ]; Reduction of "withering" by elision to two syllables
Although appearing as a three-syllable word in almost all dictionaries, in everyday speech it is usually given only two, an effect Shakespeare uses here to achieve the meter.
unwishèd: uhn-wish-ed [ʌnˈwɪʃ ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies three syllables.
sov’reignty: sov-rin-tee [ˈsɑv·rən·ti]; Elision of “sovereignty” from four to three syllables.
Although most dictionaries list the three-syllable pronunciation as secondary, it is overwhelmingly more common in everyday usage than the four-syllable alternative.
disobedᵞence: dis-oh-beed yuhns [ˌdɪs oʊˈbid yəns]; The final two syllables bleed together.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Diana was the goddess of the hunt in Roman mythology. Shakespeare, however, is invoking her secondary associations as the goddess of the moon and the protector of chastity. Romans pronounced the name with a long i and a long a: Dahy-eyn-uh [daɪˈeɪn ə].
The goddess Diana, copy after Leochares. Photo by Eric Gaba (Sting)
Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
crazèd: krey-zed [ˈkreɪ zɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
beautᵞous: byoo-tyuhs [ˈbyu tyəs]; The final two syllables of "beauteous" bleed together.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
The modern idiom is "say it to his face."
Although scholars are quick to point out that this phrase only implied courtship in Shakespeare's time, and did not yet have carnal connotations, actors must deal with the issue that modern audiences inevitably bring contemporary sensibilities to the occasion and hear that Helena and Demetrius were once lovers. They must either accept and incorporate this into their interpretation, or find some way of making clear the characters were not intimate without relying solely on these words.
Nedar's: Nay-Darz [ˈneɪ dɑrz]; Conventionally this name is pronounced Nay-dar. There is no absolute authority for any pronunciation, however. It is a fictional name. Presumably Nedar is Helena's father, but the play does not tell us if this is a male or a female name.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
t'have: toov [tuv]; (to+vowel rule)
As is almost always the case when the word "to" is followed by a word starting with a vowel sound, these two words contract to a single syllable. This case only appears odd because the spelling of "have" does not indicate accurately how we pronounce it in an unaccented position.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Egeus: Ehd-jee-us [ɛdˈʒi ʌs]; Conventionally this name is pronounced in two syllables as eej-us, but in this play it always scans as three.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Oddly, when the plot conflict created by this line finally resolves at VI.i.178, Theseus does exactly what he says he cannot do here. ("Egeus, I will overbear your will") Part of the actor's task is to discover what in Theseus' (or Theseus/Oberon's) journey causes him to change his mind.
This interjection ("What cheer," meaning "what's wrong?") has no obvious cause in the preceding lines, and it is notable that Hippolyta does not answer this direct question. It is usually motivated in modern production by Hippolyta's refusal to accompany Theseus out quietly, due to anger about what has transpired in the scene. While reading, Hippolyta can seem a very minor figure, but on the stage she is often a commanding presence who powerfully steers the scene (and the play) into the ensuing action.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Egeus: Ehd-jee-us [ɛdˈʒi ʌs]; Conventionally this name is pronounced in two syllables as eej-us, but in this play it always scans as three.
busyness: biz-ee-nis [ˈbɪz i nɪs]. The printed text says "business," but the ending is expanded so that this word occupies three syllables, like "busyness."
Optional Trumpet Flourish
The shift from a public scene to an intimate private one might be marked here by another trumpet flourish as Theseus and his party exit, bookending the one at the start of the play.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
diffërent: dif-er-uhnt [ˈdɪf ər ənt]; With the use of a glide vowel, the word is expanded so that it occupies three syllables.
low] Theobald; love QF. Although all Renaissance editions say "love," one of the earliest editors pointed out that "low" is the logical opposite to "high." Since it is easy to see how the compositors might misread Shakespeare's handwriting, most editors have accepted this change.
misgraftèd: misgraf-ted [mɪsˈgræf tɛd]; This botanical metaphor is expanded so that it occupies three syllables.
merit] QqF say "else it." The Folio makes a substantial correction to this line that is not easily explainable. It is not a simple misreading or compositor's error. Where Qq reads "friends," F says "merit." Brooks argues that it must be an intentional correction of the text in F by an inside source, but it feels less satisfactory than the reading in Q1. It is rarely adopted even by those who use F as a control text. Gary Taylor proposes the correction is genuine but it was mistakenly applied in F. He argues that "merit" was intended to replace "else it." Although Qq is not obviously wrong, Taylor's argument is persuasive and is adopted here.
momentary] F; Qq, say momentany, a plausible reading because it was a common word in the 16th century – although Shakespeare always uses momentary in all seven other instances in the canon. The choice here is more intelligible to a modern audience, of course.
heav'n and: hev-nand [ˈhɛv nænd]; Missing V Rule: Contraction from three to two syllables.
In Shakespeare's time, "heaven" was usually elided to "he'n." Because we no longer use this short form, it creates intelligibility problems in performance. In this case modern practice is to bleed the word "heaven" into the next one.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]: One syllable.
As noted earlier, this is very common in everyday speech.
confusïon: kuhn-fyoo-zhee-uhn [kənˈfyu ʒi ən]: Four syllables.
Until recently, expanded endings of this type were frequently ignored in production practice, but with the growing interest in original pronunciation, it is becoming more common to observe them.
Archaic stress on the second syllable: i-dikt [ɪˈdɪkt]
patïence: pey-see-ents [ˈpeɪ sɪ ɛnts]: Three syllables.
There is no especially good reason for it, as it creates no comprehension problems, but this class of expansions is not always observed in modern performance.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
revènue: re-ven-yoo [rɛˈvɛn yu].
As is often the case with this word in Shakespeare's plays, the stress is on the second syllable.
Samuel Johnson first noted that although this line and the next (lines 159-160) appear in the opposite order in QF they make much more sense, and are more easily understood by an audience, in this order. Taylor notes their position at the bottom of the page in Q1 makes them especially vulnerable during the transfer of type from the composing stick to the galley.
remote] Qq; removed F – a plausible alternative reading
se'n: performance practice, however, is to fully pronounce "seven" or to change to "ten."
Although simple to shorten to "s'en," that choice is not easily intelligible to modern audiences. The line is often treated as irregular. A practical performance solution is to change "s'en" to "ten" which scans correctly and can be instantly understood without substantially changing the meaning: A league is about three miles.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together.
lov'st: luhvst [lʌvst]; This shortened form of "lovest" occupies only one syllable in the verse.
Although inauthentic, many production use the modern form, "loves."
In Book One of the Metamorphoses, Ovid writes that Cupid has golden-tipped arrows that make one fall in love, and lead tipped ones that cause revulsion. (See note in Unit 5 for more about Cupid, himself.) The classical author Publius Ovidius Naso, usually just called Ovid, is an important source for imagery in this play, and for much of Shakespeare's knowledge of classical mythology.
L'Ingegno by Guiseppi Crespi
public domain: GNU Free Documentation License
In Roman mythology Venus was the goddess of love. Renaissance art sometimes pictured her as riding in a chariot pulled by doves. She was also worshipped as the mother of the Roman people because she was the mother of the Aeneas, referenced in line 174.
(Her Greek counterpart was Aphrodite. Although supposedly Greek, the characters in this play seem, like Shakespeare himself, more conversant with Roman sources and names. These allusions seem remarkably learned to us today, but his contemporaries made gentle fun of Shakespeare because he was more self-taught than his playwriting peers, who were mostly university men. They caught such incongruities, but then as now, audiences seemed not to have minded.)
Raphael, Venus in a Chariot Pulled by Doves (1517)
public domain
With this line and the one preceding Shakespeare begins a section of rhyming couplets, which are unusually prominent in this play. Here the rhyme implies cleverness, but also a bit of formality, on the part of the character. It does not seem exactly spontaneous, but a profession of love she might have pre-rehearsed according to popular romantic formulae of the time.
Hermia vows to faithfully meet Lysander by, perhaps ironically, invoking the most famous victim of faithlessness from classical antiquity.
Dido was the founding queen of Carthage who fell in love with Aeneas - the false Trojan of line 174 - when he visited in the aftermath of the Trojan War. When the gods charged him to become the founder of Rome he had to abandon Dido to do so. She committed suicide by immolating herself. (This story is beautifully told in the earliest masterpiece of English opera, Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas.) There is a darkly punning joke in Hermia's reference to the fire that burned Dido, as it could be both her burning passion for Aeneas and the flames of her funeral pyre. Throughout the play, Shakespeare relentlessly portrays love as having a dual nature – ennobling and potentially destructive.
Aeneas tells Dido the misfortunes of the Trojan city. Pierre-Narcisse Guèrin
public domain
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Yours would] Hanmer; Your words QF – Although all Renaissance texts say that these two words should be "your words," an early editor, Thomas Hanmer, suggested that "yours would" makes more sense here, and could easily have been misread by a compositor reading a handwritten manuscript.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
This scene is entirely rendered in rhyming couplets, but here at line 189 we encounter a line that does not seem to fit. "Melody," however, is an historic rhyme, i.e. a word that was pronounced differently in Shakespeare's time and was a legitimate rhyme in his era. Like many words that ended with a "y," the final syllable was pronounced in long form "ahy" [aɪ], as we still do with "sky" and "fry." Deciding what to do in contemporary performance about historic rhymes involves some aesthetic choices. It is common to use current pronunciations (and avoid the rhyme) most of the time, but supernatural characters, mythological figures and roles that benefit from an archaic impression often retain the original pronunciation because the estranging effect of the early modern sound works in their favor.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
I'd] Hanmer; I'll QF – It was again Hanmer who noted that "I'd" (short for "I would") is far more grammatically sensible than "I'll" in this place, even though all Renaissance texts agree on the latter reading.
Lines 190-191 roughly mean, "If I had everything in the world except Demetrius, I would trade it all away to be transformed into you, Hermia." (Because Hermia has Demetrius' devotion.) "Translation" was a word commonly used in Shakespeare's time for "metamorphosis." This will become a major theme in this play with the alteration of Bottom into a half-man/half-ass, but it is worth noting that Helena's wish in this line is granted and she becomes the love object of both Demetrius and Lysander later in the play – although when it happens she is confused instead of gratified.
Apollo and Daphne by Bernini. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, a favorite source for Shakespeare, Daphne is "translated" into a laurel tree to escape the advances of Apollo.
public domain
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
This is another historic rhyme. Both words – love and move - were pronounced slightly differently than they are now, and their sound met somewhere in the middle, providing a solid rhyme.
Helen] Gary Taylor; Helena QF. The variable name rule would suggest this elision, which was far more Shakespeare's habit than intentional extra-metricality. It is the first instance of the shortened name form in the text and the compositor may have "corrected" what he read, assuming it was a mistake in manuscript.
heav'n unto: hev-nuhn-too [ˈhɛv nʌn tu]. Although authentic Elizabethan practice would be to say "hen unto", modern practice is to bleed the two words together. Retaining the "v" sound helps intelligibility.
Phoebe (Pronounced Fee-bee) was another name for the goddess Diana, and is used here as a reference to the moon, which is personified as a woman seeing her "silvery" face reflected in a smooth lake or pond acting like a mirror.
Victorian Brooch of Diana, Argonaut Museum
public domain
wat'ry: waw-tree [ˈwɔ tri]; The middle syllable is eliminated.
"To you our minds we will unfold..."
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Empt'ying: empt-ying [ˈɛmpt yɪŋ]. The middle syllable is eliminated. This is also an example of the trochaic inversion of the first foot.
sweet] Theobald; swelled QF – This uncontroversial change, suggested by one of the earliest editors, restores an obvious rhyme.
stranger companies] Theobald; strange companions QF – This new reading, meaning "the company of foreigners" was also suggested by Theobald, and also restores a rhyme, but is far less obvious as a correction for the very odd (and unmetrical) reading in the Renaissance editions. Nonetheless, it has been almost universally adopted in both modern print editions and performances.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
o'er: awr [ɔr]; This is a case we are used to seeing, because (for no obvious reason) when "over" (and also "ever") occur in poetry the contraction is conventionally marked in modern editions. Why these should be the only cases so treated is murky.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Throughout this section, Love is personified. Helena makes the identification with Cupid explicit in line 235. Cupid is the best known of all mythological figures. His name in Latin (Cupido) literally means desire. In Greek mythology he was called Eros, from which we can easily deduce he was the god of erotic love. He was never independently worshipped in his own temples, as many other gods, but was associated with his mother Venus, and her cult. In Greek art of the classical period he is pictured as an adolescent male, but by the Hellenistic period (the time of Alexander the Great) he was already beginning to be figured as a chubby, prepubescent boy. He is associated with the bow-and-arrow, a blatant phallic symbol, the wound from which caused uncontrollable passion. In the Renaissance he served as a complex allegorical symbol, as often destructive as romantic.
Amor Vincit Omnia (Love Conquers All) by Shakespeare's contemporary, Caravaggio
public domain
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
This is the archaic plural of "eye." Using it was already quaint in Shakespeare's time. Helena may be being caustic.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
show'rs: shourz [ʃaʊrz]; One syllable. Like "power" this word is frequently pronounced in a short form in everyday speech, but its spelling blinds us to this fact.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Optional Rustic Theme
In modern performance the entering workmen are often introduced by a few measures of a rustic and comic theme to set the tone for the coming scene.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
"Mary" means little more than "oh my goodness" but is the mildly controversial remnant of an oath – "I swear by the Virgin Mary." Amusingly, most editions still use "Merry," or "Marry," the Elizabethan equivalent of printing "sh*t," to thinly disguise the blasphemy and make it less offensive.
Pyramus and Thisbe is a Romeo and Juliet-like story from Ovid's Metamorphoses. For Shakespeare's audience Pyramus and Thisbe would be a much more recognizable reference to a romantic pair beset by tragedy. The full (ridiculous) title of this playlet is a parody of an actual title from the period, Thomas Preston's Cambyses: A lamentable tragedy full of pleasant mirth.
Pyramus and Thysbe from an ancient mosaic found on Cyprus
public domain
"Masters, spread yourselves"
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
storms] QF; stones, Taylor – Although "move storms" is a perfectly sensible phrase implying eliciting tears from the audience, Taylor argues that Hercules was associated with feats of strength and would be more likely to move boulders. Several modern editors have adopted this plausible alternative reading.
Except for this very brief section (lines 23-30), this scene is in prose and, therefore, has no scansion issues. This short section is in iambic dimeter, a childishly simple metrical form. "Shivering" is the only word in that needs to be modified - by eliminating the middle syllable - but is often performed with Bottom determinedly pronouncing all three syllables and thereby (hilariously) mangling the meter.
"Phibbus' car" is a reference to the chariot of Phœbus Apollo, the sun god. In classical Greek mythology, Phœbus Apollo was said to ride across the sky daily in his gleamingly bring golden chariot, an allegory for the movement of the sun from east to west.
Apollo accompanied by the Hours by John Singer Sargent
public domain
These silly verses are, surprisingly, a remarkably erudite parody of actual lines from John Studley's 1581 translation of Seneca's Hercules Oetaeus.
Hercules was a well-known classical hero and demi-god, renowned for his strength. He was called Heracles in Greek. Hercules was the subject of plays by both Euripides in ancient Greece and Seneca in ancient Rome. Shakespeare is parodying a (terribly overwrought) translation of Hercules on Oeta by John Studley in the verse lines that precede this one. The translation was published in 1581, fifteen or so years before Midsummer was written. The implication is that Bottom's taste is drama is very old fashioned and melodramatic.
In the early modern period, young men always played the women's roles in theatrical productions. Although not actually illegal, social prohibition against English women appearing on stage was very effective until after the Restoration in 1660.
When we finally see the playlet in Act V, these are not the roles the men play, but to an audience these are details long forgotten by the time the performance takes place.
Shakespeare is probably making fun of an actual historical incident related to the baptismal feast of Prince Henry in 1594 in which a last minute decision was reached to substitute a human for a tamed lion to pull a chariot for a spectacular entrance, for fear that control of the beast might be lost.
Bottom is characteristically confusing things. He probably means "sitting," i.e. nesting, doves. "Sucking" denoted unweaned offspring of mammals, especially lambs, but birds do not nurse their young.
Bottom is demonstrating professional knowledge as a dyer of the terminology for various colors used in fabrics. Hilariously, however, none of them is anything like a natural hair color. Interestingly, Chaudhuri, editor of the Arden3, retains the antique form "perfit" for the penultimate word.
This is a very rude joke about the loss of hair that accompanies syphilis, which the English called the "French disease."
It is clear from the context this line generally means "keep (hold to) our agreement to meet, or suffer the consequences" but no one knows definitively what metaphor is being invoked.
Some scholars speculate that it comes from archery where, perhaps, the actual penalty for missing target practice was to have your bow string cut. An equally plausible explanation is that it is a euphemism, perhaps inserted by a censor, for an archaic expression "Hold, or cut cod-piece point" which much more obscenely suggested that if you failed live up to your commitments, when you were next off your guard in public your cod-piece would be pulled off, like the modern schoolboy prank called "pantsing."
The woods may be represented in a variety of ways but in contemporary productions it is often more a dreamscape than a forest.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
In professional production, one of the four named fairies almost always doubles this role.
Optional Fairy Theme
The shift from the mortal world to the fairies' supernatural one is often accomplished with the help of an otherworldly musical theme. Such a musical cue is not explicitly called for in the script, but is in keeping with both Elizabethan and modern practice.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
This line is an example of iambic tetrameter, eight syllables long, once the elision in "sprite" is observed.
sprite: [spraɪt]; In early modern verse our two syllable word "spirit" was commonly shortened to a single syllable, interchangeably pronounced "sprit" or "sprite." (See line 31 in this scene for an example where Q2 and the Folio spell the word "spirit" although it clearly rhymes with "quite.")
O'er: awr [ɔr]; As noted earlier in the play, this is a conventional elision of "over." It applies to both instances in this line.
o'er: awr [ɔr]; see previous note.
through] Q2F; thorough Q1 – During the early modern period "thorough" and "through" were interchangeable in both meaning and pronunciation. Most modern editions retain the Q1 spelling "thorough" for all four occurrences in the first two lines, and several explicitly state that a two-syllable pronunciation is correct. For reasons detailed in a separate note about lineation, this editor finds these arguments unpersuasive.
1. The beginning of this speech is usually printed in a very different lineation (see below), first proposed by poet Alexander Pope in his edition of 1723, which unnecessarily confuses scansion. The speech is written in iambic tetrameter (switching to pentameter in the final three lines), although it employs two variations (discussed below) that complicate easy recognition. Shakespeare frequently uses this meter for the speech of supernatural characters, especially when they are casting magic spells.
After applying ordinary scansion rules, the first two lines can be scanned as eight–not twelve, as Pope would have it–syllables each.
(At least one reason for assuming that Pope–and almost all subsequent editions–was wrong about the meter is that it is a close paraphrase of clearly iambic line from Spenser's The Faerie Queene, a recognized source for MND:
"Through hils and dales, through bushes and through breres" 6.8.32)
Six times in the speech (lines 4-6, 9-11) Shakespeare utilizes the variation of the "headless" line, in which the line lacks the first syllable of the first iamb, a silent off-beat known by the technical name "catalexis."
The final two of those, however, also have a "tail" (feminine ending) and are often identified as trochaic tetrameter. There is little practical point in the debate about the "proper" designation, since in a functional sense those are two different ways of describing the same sound.
The speech is much more easily delivered, and for that matter read, when it is interpreted and arranged as using a unified meter than the very complicated pattern implied in Pope's lineation that would suggest the speech employs five different meters (two of them highly unusual) in fifteen lines.
2. Pope's arrangement (utilized in most modern editions) of the first two lines is as follows:
Over hill, over dale,
Thorough bush, thorough brier
Over park, over pale,
Thorough flood, thorough fire;
O'er: awr [ɔr]; Just as with the previous line, this is a conventional elision of "over." It applies to both instances in this line.
o'er: awr [ɔr]; see previous note.
This line is an example of a headless line, with an initial catalexis. In this variation the poet leaves the first syllable of the first iamb empty. Performance practice is for the actor, feeling the pulse of the iambic rhythm, to leave a pause (like a musical rest) and then hit the next syllable with a "jolt."
Another catalexis.
moonës: moo nuhs ['mu nəs]
George Steevens first proposed (in his 1773 edition) that the archaic two-syllable possessive was implied here, in order to understand the line as metrically regular. Most modern editors accept this emendation. Those that do not just ignore the resulting irregularity and associated performance issues.
The exception, Harold Brooks, implies that two "beats" should be filled by stretching the thematically important word "moo-oonnnn's" to twice its normal length rather than employing two syllables. His rationale for this is not clear, aside from a reluctance to introduce any changes to the quarto text, but his solution works very well in performance.
Before modern astronomy explained the motions of the planets and stars, most people believed the Greek mathematician Ptolemy's theory that heavily bodies were attached to concentric spheres of clear crystal that surrounded the earth.
Thomas Digges' 1576 Copernican heliocentric model of the celestial orbs. Public Domain.
another catalexis
pensh'ners: pen-shnerz [ˈpɛn ʃnərz]; The word "pensioners" loses its middle syllable by elision. As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
Another catalexis.
This is another headless line of iambic tetrameter, but this is disguised because it also has a soft "feminine" ending variation. In other words, it looks and sounds the same as a line of trochaic tetrameter.
This is another headless line of iambic tetrameter, but like in the previous line, this is disguised because it also has a soft "feminine" ending variation.
stol'n: stohln [ˈstoʊln]; Elision of "stolen" to one syllable.
While this looks, and feels, odd at first, it is still common in everyday speech to hear this word pronounced as one syllable. Doing so creates no intelligibility problems.
Indᵞan: in dyuhn [ˈɪn dyən]; Blended into two syllables.
The two-syllable pronunciation is common in British dialects.
changëling: cheyn-juh-ling [ˈtʃeɪn dʒə lɪŋ]; Trisyllabic through the addition of a glide vowel.
lovéd: luh-vid [ˈlʌ vɪd]; Occupying two syllables.
flow'rs: flourz [flaʊrz]; One syllable.
Because of its spelling we think of "flower" as a two syllable word, but we think of its homonym, "flour," as just one syllable. It is easily contracted.
Eith'r I: ahy-thrahy [aɪ ˈðraɪ]; These two words bleed together and lose the middle syllable to contraction.
This contraction is almost universal in everyday speech, but only a superior ear recognizes this and builds it into the meter.
wand'rers, won-drerz [ˈwɒn drərz]; Bisyllabic, through elision of the middle vowel. As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
Puck, in an acrylic forest designed by Ming Chen.
Courtesy of Classic TheaterWorks, production directed by Kurt Daw
wand'rer, won-drer [ˈwɒn drər]; Bisyllabic, through elision of the middle vowel.
Scholars don't know exactly what this exclamation means.
Some accept Samuel Johnson's otherwise unsupported explanation that it references the cross-legged manner in which stitchers would sit on the floor to do their work, since this is the position the "wisest aunt" might have ended in after she fell off her stool.
More recent editors think it may pun on "tail," meaning backside, with a last second euphemistic addition meaning something like Oh, my butt-er!
merr'yer: mer-yer [ˈmɛr yər]; Bisyllabic, through elimination of its middle vowel. As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
make room] Pope; room QqF – This line presents a probable corruption in the transmission of the text. As printed in all early modern editions this irregular line has only nine syllables, with an awkwardly placed hole in the pattern.
1. Early editor Alexander Pope suggested the addition of the word "make," or "give" to regularize the meter, which is the solution accepted here. ("Make Room" appears three other times in the canon, but this is the only instance of "room" as a command.) Some editors also adopt "But room now..." Pope's emendation was widely accepted for well over a hundred years but has more recently fallen out of favor. Contemporary scholars are very reluctant to adopt such changes but their editorial concern is far more bibliographic than performative. Many simply ignore the irregularity.
2. It is possible, of course, that the line was intended to have a catalexis at the caesura. For this solution to make metrical sense the line must be re-punctuated: "But room. (x) Fairy, here comes Oberon."
3. Another performance alternative comes from Harold Bloom who, in his usual manner for solving metrical problems, proposes that the line is correct in QqF, but "roooommm" should be commandingly stretched to fill the usual space of two syllables. This frequently adopted solution is effective in performance.
All early modern editions of the play indicate that Oberon is also accompanied by a train of followers, but they play no part in the scene and are given no exit. In contemporary production he is rarely accompanied.
Optional Trumpet Flourish, or alternatively, Thunder
The entrance of the King and Queen of Fairies, like the entrance of mortal kings and queens, was probably emphasized by some sort of musical cue or sound effect, although the original text does not specify one. A trumpet flourish like that used at the start of the play would be appropriate, but thunderclaps are sometime introduced here instead.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Fairy] QqF; Fairies Theobald – Because Tytania commands fairies (plural) to exit at the end of this scene (line 86), most editors since Lewis Theobald (in 1733) have assumed this instance should also be plural. Gary Taylor, however, argues that Tytania is only addressing the fairy who has been speaking with Puck here.
In practical terms, this debate can be best settled based on how the previous scene is played. If the encounter between Puck and the fairy is somewhat flirtatious, for example, then Tytania's use of the singular reads as a corrective to behavior that she finds too familiar in the current strained circumstances. If the scene is played as a tense encounter, then it works better for Tytania to command all her followers to move away from Puck and Oberon.
stol'n: stohln [ˈstoʊln]; Elision of "stolen" to one syllable.
(See previous instances of this word.)
am'rous: am-ruhs [ˈam-rəs]: Bisyllabic, through elision of the middle vowel of "amorous."
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
steep] Q2,F; steppe (step) Q1 – According to the OED, there was no available sense of "step" that fit this context in Shakespeare's era, but Gabriel Egan argues that it might simply mean "walk one would take." It is, therefore, a plausible alternative.
warrᵞor: wahr-yer [ˈwɔr yər]. Bisyllabic elision of "warrior."
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a vowel, it can be elided to fit the meter. Another example can be found in the previous note, at line 67 of this scene.
Thesᵞus: thees-yuhs [ˈθis yəs]. Occasionally, as in this case, this character's name occupies only two syllables.
Oberon accuses Tytania of protecting philandering Theseus.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
glimm'ring: glim-ring [ˈglɪm rɪŋ]; "Glimmering" becomes bisyllabic through elimination of its middle vowel.
This is another example of the central syllable of a three-syllable word, comprised only of a schwa [ə], being elided to fit the meter.
In this speech Oberon quickly lists four young women that, in alternative versions of the same basic story, Theseus was said to have seduced and abandoned. Perigenia, (pronounced Pair-ə-jen-yə) whose name is more often spelled Perigune, was the daughter of the murderous bandit Sinis. Theseus killed Sinis, and later found Perigenia hiding in nearby rushes.
Aegles (EE-gləs) was a nymph, for whom Theseus left Ariadne, (Air-ee-add-nee) the daughter of the Cretan King. Ariadne had given Theseus a skein of thread to find his way out of the labyrinth after he killed the minotaur, in expectation that she would become his wife. Antiopa, (An-tie-oh-pa) the final of the four abandoned lovers, was an Amazon like Hippolyta. (In fact, although Shakespeare clearly believes them to be separate people, in most tellings Antiopa is another name for Hippolyta.)
Shakespeare treats the mytheme as four separate incidents, but his original contribution to the story is to suggest that Theseus' motivation for abandoning them, in all cases, was an overriding passion for Tytania-which she vehemently denies.
ravishéd: ra-vish-ed [ˈræ vɪʃ ɛd]. The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
Aegles] Chambers; Eagles QqF – This is simply the modernized spelling of this name, pronounced (EE-gləs), utilized mainly to avoid confusion with raptors. Shakespeare's source, Thomas North's Plutarch, used this form.
pavéd: pay-ved [ˈpeɪ vɛd]; The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
in] QqF; on – The modern form would be "on the margin" and some editors adopt this variation for clarity, although without claiming textual corruption in the original.
beachéd: bee-ched [ˈbi tʃɛd]; The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
margin] modern spelling; Margent QqF. Although clearly meaning the same thing as "margin," margent was Shakespeare's preferred spelling which a surprising number of recent editors, including some that modernize liberally, retain.
drownéd: drou-ned [ˈdraʊ nɛd]; The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
undistinguish'ble: un-di-sting-gwi shbul [ʌn dɪˈstɪŋ gwɪ ʃbəl]; The penultimate syllable is elided.
cheer] Hamner; here QF. The Q1 reading makes semantic sense, but seems to imply the opposite of the rest of the speech. Thomas Hamner's emendation in his 1743 edition, is more contextually appropriate. An easy error could have been responsible for the loss of the beginning "c" in Q1. Chaudhuri, in the Arden3, however, argues that it is midsummer so a wish for winter cheer makes little sense. He retains "here" and paraphrases the line as meaning "The summer is so bad, that men wish it were winter."
rhéumatic: ru-muh-tic [ˈrʊ mə tɪk]; Although accented on the second syllable in modern usage, this word has an archaic first syllable stress in this case.
thórough: thuh-roh [ˈθʌ roʊ]; As noted at Unit 7, line 2, Shakespeare used "through" and "thorough" interchangeably depending on his metrical needs. Here the scansion calls for two syllables, but the meaning is clearly that of the one syllable word, i.e. a preposition meaning "by way of"
thin] Tyrwhitt; chin, QF; Modern editors conjecture a compositorial error, mistaking a handwritten "t" for a "c". It is hard to see how the wreath could encompass a crown and a chin.
od'rous: Oh-druhs [ˈəʊd rəs]; Bisyllabic elision of "odorous."
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
mock'ry: mok-ree [ˈmɑk ri]; Bisyllabic elision of "mockery."
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter. See previous line for another example.
'mazéd: mey-zed [ˈmeɪ zɛd]; The word "amazed" would scan as a trochee, but because an iamb is needed Shakespeare elided the first syllable then expanded the ending.
dissensíon: dih-sen-see uhn [dɪˈsɛn si ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation is divided into two syllables in Elizabethan practice. This is generally honored in contemporary production, because it presents no comprehension difficulties.
chang'ling: cheynj-ling [ˈtʃeɪndʒ lɪŋ]; A great example of the elasticity of English pronunciation. Although we have seen a trisyllabic usage at Unit 7, line 21, here it is bisyllabic.
The changeling is usually represented as an infant, but recently some productions have played him as an adolescent.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
vot'ress: voh-tris [ˈvoʊ trɪs]; Bisyllabic elision of "votaress."
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter. This scene contains several examples.
spicéd: spahy-sed [ˈspaɪ sɛd]: The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
Indᵞan: in dyuhn [ˈɪn dyən]; Blended into two syllables.
The two-syllable pronunciation is common in British dialects.
Neptune was the Roman god of water, being invoked here especially as the ruler of the seas. His Greek name was Poseidon.
"Triumph of Neptune standing on a chariot pulled by two sea horses". Mosaic d'Hadrumète (Sousse) the mid-third century AD. Musée archéologique de Sousse. Asram at fr.wikipedia
Creative Commons, Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license
th'embarkéd: them-bahr-ked [ðɛmˈbɑr kɛd]; The vowels of the two words contract together eliminating a syllable, and the past tense is expanded.
Foll'wing: fol-wing [ˈfɒl wɪŋ] This word is usually scanned as bisyllabic, using the principle by which when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
It is possible to read it, alternatively, as a feminine ending at the caesura, but that is rhythmically difficult for both speaker and listener.
b'ing: bing [bɪŋ]: Monosyllabic. Although this may, at first, seem odd, if you listen to real people speak you will notice that this word is usually reduced to a single syllable.
Thesᵞus: thees-yuhs [ˈθis yəs]. Occasionally, as in this case, this character's name occupies only two syllables. Here it is possessive, but it does not gain another syllable.
This eleven syllable line is "regular" because it has a soft (feminine) ending, but it is hard to scan because it occurs at the caesura rather than the line end.
Such complicated metrics become fairly common in Shakespeare's late plays, but are rare in MND and other early works.
If you scan it once saying only "king" you will immediately hear that "dom" is the extra syllable.
rememb'rest: ri-mem-brest [rɪˈmɛm brɛst]; This word loses its penultimate syllable through elision.
Utt'ring: uht-ring [ˈʌt rɪŋ]; Bisyllabic elision of "uttering." This is yet another example of a three-syllable word, which loses its central schwa [ə] through elision. See the previous unit for numerous examples.
harmonᵞus: hahr-moh-nyuhs [hɑrˈmoʊ nyəs]; Trisyllabic after blending of the penultimate syllable.
Cupid is the god of erotic love. He is discussed in a longer note in Unit 5, line 239.
thronèd: throh-ned [ˈθroʊ nəd]; The past tense ending is sounded as a separate syllable.
the] F; omit, Qq; This word does not appear in either of the quartos. In both, the line is nine syllables long. The correction in the First Folio seems to be repairing an obvious omission.
fi'ry: fai-ree [ˈfaɪ ri]; Bisyllabic after elision of the central schwa [ə] in "fiery."
wat'ry: waw-tree [ˈwɔ tri]; Bisyllablic.
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
imperᵞal vot'ress: im-peer-yuhl [ɪmˈpɪər yəl], voh-tris [ˈvoʊ trɪs]; Both words are shortened by one syllable.
passéd: pa-sed [ˈpæ səd]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable.
The flower we now call a "pansy" or "heartsease." Shakespeare seems to have borrowed the idea that it got its purple color from Cupid's arrow from Ovid, who described the formerly-white mulberry as taking its color from Pyramus' blood.
A Wild Pansy
Photo © Dr Richard Murray
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.
Monosyllabic, like flour: flouuhr [flaʊər]
Mentioned in the Bible, Shakespeare and his contemporaries would have understood a leviathan to be a gigantic sea-creature: a whale.
This eleven-line speech is the second soliloquy in the play. In Shakespeare's age this speech would be treated as direct address to the audience rather than as Oberon's private musings to himself. It is almost universal in contemporary performance to employ this convention and "break the fourth wall" when delivering early modern soliloquies.
off] F; of, Qq; Both quartos say "of," which could be a variant spelling, but is more likely an incidental oversight.
This line often gets one of the largest laughs in the show when delivered as a matter-of-fact. The assertion, itself, renders Oberon invisible to the entering humans. However, in the inventory of a competing theatrical company during Shakespeare's era was "a robe for to go invisible," suggesting that invisibility may originally have been marked by a costuming convention. Perhaps this line had an accompanying action of donning a symbolic robe or cape.
confërence: kon-fe -ruhns; [ˈkɒn fə rəns]; Trisyllabic by addition of a glide vowel.
slay] Theobald; stay QF
All early editions of the play contain this puzzling reading, which Theobald first conjectured was a misreading of the handwriting in the manuscript.
While many contemporary editions defend the original reading, they do not agree who is then being "stayed" and who is "staying" Demetrius. Demetrius could be saying that Lysander is delaying (staying) him from reaching Hermia, whose attractions stop (stayeth) him in his tracks.
He could also be saying that his intent is to stop (stay) Lysander from eloping with Hermia, but his fondness for her is delaying (staying) him from taking effective action. Theobald's alternative reading is widely adopted in current performance practice not least because its meaning is instantly clear.
slayeth] Theobald; stayeth QF
See previous note for a full explanation of the variants in this line.
told'st: tohldst [toʊldst]; Told'st is elided to a single syllable, as opposed to "toldest".
This shortening appears in the original texts where it is spelled "toldst" without the apostrophe. In contemporary performance, although derided by purists, the modern form "told" is sometimes substituted.
stol'nunto: stohl nuhn-too [ˈstoʊl nʌn tu]; Stol'n is shortened to a single syllable, a elision spelled "stolne" in the printed Quarto. In contemporary performance practice the final "n," is blended into the next word.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]: One syllable.
As noted in previous instances, this is very common in everyday speech.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]: One syllable.
nor] F; Not Qq
The Folio reading of this line is a simple correction of the nonsensical quartos, probably resulting from a foul case error.
usèd: yoo zuhd [yu zɛd]; The past tense is sounded so that "used" occupies two syllables in this line.
privïlege: priv-uh -lij [ˈprɪv ə lɪdʒ]; Trisyllabic through addition of a glide vowel.
The story of Apollo and Daphne is an ancient Greek myth, recounted most famously in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Apollo, the god that drives the sun across the sky, and a great warrior, mocked Cupid for his un-warlike use of bow and arrows. Cupid, angered, shot two arrows—one of gold at Apollo, to inspire love, and one of lead, at Daphne, a nymph, to inspire hate. The arrows had their full effect; Apollo, seized with love, pursued Daphne, begging for her to stay, while she ran from him. While fast, she could not outrun the god, and so called upon her father, a river god, to save her in whatever way he could. Her father transformed her into a laurel tree. Apollo, since he could not have her as a wife, vowed to tend the tree. He cast a spell upon the leaves so that they would never decay and declared that they would crown the heads of leaders and victors.
Shakespeare’s inverts the traditional imagery; it is the woman who pursues the man. This reversal cleverly alludes to other parts of Midsummer, especially love/hate relationships and transformations.
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_by_Bernini_01.jpg#/media/File:Apollo_by_Bernini_01.jpg
"Apollo by Bernini 01" by Antoine Taveneaux
Also commonly spelt “griffon” or “gryphon,” from the Greek γρύφων (grýphōn). It is a legendary creature of Greek myth with the body, tail, and back legs of a lion, and the head, wings, and talons of an eagle.
The griffin is associated with majesty, wealth, and the divine, and is well known for guarding treasure and priceless possessions. Later on, during the medieval period, it became a symbol often seen on the heraldry of noble houses, signifying boldness and power.
Because of the fact that the symbol of the griffin would have waved in war, the imagery of it running from the dove, a symbol of peace (not to mention a fraction of the size) is an intense inversion.
Rhetoric note: this is a fine example of Shakespeare’s use of images aimed at different audience members—the myth, the heraldry, and the basic comparison of the deer and tiger make sure that no audience member misses what he’s trying to say because of lack of learning.
"Wenceslas Hollar - A griffin" by Wenceslaus Hollar - Artwork from University of Toronto Wenceslaus Hollar Digital Collection, Scanned by University of Toronto
Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
heav'n of: hev-nuv [ˈhɛv nʌv]; In Elizabethan speech this word was shortened to "hea'en" by eliminating the central consonant, rendering a pronunciation like "hen." Because this is no longer decodable by a modern audience, performance practice is now to retain the "v" but bleed the final "n" into the next word, "of," reducing three syllables to two.
flow'r: flour [flaʊr]
: One syllableBecause of its spelling we think of "flower" as a two syllable word, but we think of its homonym, "flour," as just one syllable. It is easily contracted.
th'wild: thwyld [ðwaɪld]; The liquid "w" acts as a vowel in this combination (as it does in the English word "thwart") allowing contraction of the two words and elimination of a syllable.
This line is cast in iambic tetrameter, but the rest of the speech shifts to pentameter.
Thyme is an herb widely used in cooking, medicine and ornamental gardening. It was used as incense by the ancient Greeks and was spread through Europe by the Romans. Because it grows in large mounds, often called "beds," Shakespeare is possibly invoking an association with sleep.
Photo (c)2006 Derek Ramsey (Ram-Man)
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license.
Oxlips are a hybrid between the primrose and the cowslip, producing larger flowers.
The New Botanical Garden Book (1812)
Public Domain
Nodding violtet: A common flower, now a popular houseplant, so named because the flowers seem to droop. Shakespeare is again using an association with sleep or with being in a trance.
"Streptocarpus 'Anderson's Mr Currie' hybrid flowers" by Nzfauna
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
vi'let: vahy-lit [ˈvaɪ lɪt]; Bisyllabic elision of "violet."
As is still common in colloquial speech, this flower's name loses its middle syllable to fit the meter.
Woodbine is the common name for what we now call European honeysuckle, a fragrant vine.
Photo by Wikipedia user: Sannse
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Muskrose is also called sweetbriar. It is a fragrant species of rose. Although Shakespeare lists them separately in this sentence, it is the same thing as eglantine.
Photo by Wikimedia Commons user: HitroMilanese
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
flow'rs: flourz [flaʊrz]; One syllable.
As noted at the beginning of this scene at line 249, this word is often shortened in Shakespeare, and in everyday speech.
Snakes periodically outgrown their outer skin, which they then shed whole. Such skins can appear iridescent which Shakespeare compares to the bright colors of enamels.
Photo by Neil Cummings
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Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
thee: thee [ði]; One would expect the application of the The+Vowel Rule here, but for purposes of preserving the meter "the" is given its own syllable in this one case. To prevent it bleeding into the next word, the vowel is lengthened to its long form.
Athenᵞan:uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]. As in the previous use at line 263, the word is here shortened to three syllables.
clam'rous: klam-ruhs
[ˈklæm rəs]; Bisyllabic elision of "clamorous." Many words with a central syllable consisting of only one vowel sound were, in Elizabethan English, interchangeably pronounced as trisyllabic or (by losing their middle vowel) bisyllabic. (The word "violet" at line 253 in the previous unit is another example.) The scansion tells us the latter is the case here.Song and Dance
As commanded by Tytania, at this point the fairies sing a song which is accompanied by a dance. This is one of the major musical incidents in the play. It is discussed at length in the essay, "Music and Dance in Midsummer" in the Resources section following the play.
Because only a few line pass before this song begins, musical underscoring often starts at the top of the scene and segues into song at this moment. The start of the cue, therefore, may be earlier than indicated here.
As with the fairy's speech that opened this act (Unit 7), the fairies' song is written in iambic tetrameter, with alternating lines beginning with a catalexis (an "empty" first syllable, like a musical rest.)
The story of Philomela being turned into a nightingale is an ancient Greek myth, retold most famously in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Philomela was a princess of Athens, and the younger of two daughters. Her sister Procne married Tereus, the king of Thrace and a son of Ares. After five years of marriage, Procne wished to see her sister and asked her husband to allow a visit. Tereus agreed and went to Athens to escort Philomela to Thrace. However, the moment he saw her he began to lust for her. After they arrived in Thrace, he took her into a lodge in the woods and raped her. Tereus threatened her and told her not to tell. When she vehemently refused, he cut out her tongue so she could not speak of the rape and abandoned her. Because she could not speak, she instead wove a tapestry that told the story and sent it to Procne. Procne, enraged, killed the son she and Tereus had together, boiled him, and served him as a meal to her husband. After Tereus finished eating, the two sisters presented the severed head of his son. He took up an axe and chased them. As they fled, they prayed to the gods to be turned into birds to escape his wrath. Procne was transformed into a swallow, and Philomela into a nightingale.
The nightingale is associated with the escape from sorrow and violence. Here, the fairies may be invoking her name in reference to the troubles Tytania is having with Oberon.
This myth in particular is cited quite often by Shakespeare. Heavy allusions or direct references exist in Titus Andronicus, The Rape of Lucrece, Cymbeline, and Sonnet 102.
Rape of Philomela by Tereus. Engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's Metamorphoses Book VI, 519-562. Fol. 80 r, image 6.
Public Domain
Oberon's incantation is written in seven "headless" iambic tetrameter lines. Each begins with an "empty" beat called a catalexis, giving it an edgy, anxious rhythm.
wak'st: waykst [weɪkst]; "Wakest" is elided to a single syllable here by eliminating the final vowel sound.
The enchantment of Tytania.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
wand'ring: wond ring [ˈwɒnd rɪŋ]. This elision is very common in everyday speech, and was so common in Elizabethan England that the word is actually spelled "wandring" in QF.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Because of their adjacent vowels, these two words contract together, into a single syllable: beet [bit]
Q1 prints "Bet it" in this location, which Q2 and F correct to "Be it." Because of the scansion needs, however, "Bet" was probably intended to indicate the contraction, with subsequent editors correcting the wrong problem.
god] Q1. Our reading comes from Q2, F.
Although Q1 offers a recognizable word here, no editor (not even among the Folio purists) argues that it is anything more than a typographical error.
confërence: kon-fe -ruhns [ˈkɒn fə rəns]; Trisyllabic through addition of a glide vowel
interchainèd: in-ter-chey-ned [ˈɪn tərˌtʃeɪ nɛd]; The past tense is separately sounded as a syllable.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
virt(w)ous: vur-chwuhs [ˈvɜr tʃwəs]. The liquid "w" sound is acting as a vowel in the word "virtuous," allowing the final two syllables to elide together into one.
ne'er: nair [nɛər]; Utilizing the common poetic convention of eliminating the middle V sound the word "never" is reduced to a single syllable. (In Q1, it is spelled "nere," making clear the application of the "Missing V" rule.)
The puck is again using his preferred meter – iambic tetrameter, frequently employing "headless lines." Lines with this variation have a silent syllable (formally called a "catalexis") at the beginning of the line.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
Despisèd: dih-spahy-zed [dɪˈspaɪ zɛd]. The past tense is separately sounded as a syllable.
thee: thee [ði]; One would expect the application of the The+Vowel Rule here, but for purposes of preserving the meter "the" is given its own syllable in this one case. To prevent it bleeding into the next word, the vowel is lengthened to its long form.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; As at line 66, shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
court'sy: kurt-see [ˈkɜrt si]; Bisyllabic, "courtesy" occupies only two syllables in the scansion. Many words with a central syllable consisting of only one vowel sound were, in Elizabethan English, interchangeably pronounced as trisyllabic or (by losing their middle vowel) bisyllabic. (The quarto uses the spelling "curtsie" in some locations.) The scansion tells us the latter is the case here.
It is also a case of "historic rhyme," as in Shakespeare's era it rhymed with "lie." This practice is not usually observed in performance, but the historic rhymes are sometimes observed by the supernatural characters in MND to give them a distinctive quality.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]: One syllable.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
"Ever" becomes "e'er": air [ɛər].
Utilizing the common poetic convention of eliminating the middle V sound "ever" is reduced to a single syllable, even sometimes (as here) when it is part of a larger word.
blessèd: bles-ed [ˈblɛs ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Although still less preferred than the one-syllable alternative, this is one of the few expanded endings that have survived into modern times and is still in use.
oft'ner: awf-nur [ˈɒf nɜr]. This is another example of the Elizabethan habit of eliminating the middle syllable of a three-syllable word when it consists only of a vowel sound.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
In this speech Lysander argues that until now he has not been mature enough to appreciate Helena's gifts, but with his newfound wisdom he is overruling his old, purely emotional attachment to Hermia. This rationalization for his behavior is broadly comic not just because the audience knows (under the spell of Puck's enchantment) he is acting entirely irrationally, but because they recognize such blindness to one's passions is all too common.
tedᵞous: tee-juhs [ˈti dʒəs]
The final two syllables bleed together.
worthᵞer: worth-yuhr [ˈwɜrð yər]
The final two syllable bleed together.b'ing: bing [bɪŋ]
Although this may, at first, seem odd, if you listen to real people speak you will notice that this word is usually reduced to a single syllable.
"Over" becomes "o'er": awr-look [ɔrˈlʊk] It is a conventional contraction to shorten "over" to "o'er," even when (as here) it appears as part of a longer word.
mock'ry: mok-ree [ˈmɒk ri]
This is yet another example of a trisyllabic word that loses its middle syllable in Elizabethan speech because it is composed of a single vowel sound.
Is't: ist [ɪst]
"Is it" is here contracted to a single syllable. We know this is the intent from the Q1 spelling "ist." This applies to both instances in the line.
Is't: ist [ɪst]
"Is it" is here contracted to a single syllable. See the example earlier in the line.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. Although it is possessive here, it does not gain another syllable.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Eith': ee-th, or ahy-th [ið, or ˈaɪð] The rule by which medial Vs are sometimes eliminated also occasionally applies, as here, to words with TH in the middle.
This is the trickiest scansion problem in the second act. The word "either" occupies only one syllable, but there is no common agreement about how to make it do so in contemporary performance. In Shakespeare's time it was elided to “ei’er,” which sounded like “ire.” Probably just omitting the second syllable is the most intelligible for a modern audience: ee-th, or ahy-th [ið, or ˈaɪð]. A very common "solution," however, is to pronounce the word fully and ignore the irregularity that causes.
Optional Rustic Music
If a rustic theme song is employed at the beginning of Unit 6, it often returns again here.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
"marvails" for "marvelously." Frequently in this scene the "mechanicals" speak in a rural dialect, used for a humorous effect. This is not a scansion issue as the scene is written in prose, but dialect is used to convey the lack of sophistication of the characters.
Throughout this speech, Shakespeare is exploiting meta-theatricality for humorous effect, as Quince is pointing at an actual stage when he states that the "green plot shall be our stage" and is standing in front of an actual 'tiring house (i.e. "attiring house" or in modern terms, the backstage area and dressing rooms) when he says that the hawthorn brake will have to serve that function. While his cast is called upon to use their imaginations to see a stage where a clearing is located and a dressing room where a hawthorn grove is situated, we (to our amusement) are forced to do the opposite.
The story of Pyramus and Thisbe, as related in Ovid, is tragic. Like Romeo, Pyramus kills himself because he mistakenly believes that his true love is dead. Thisbe, like Juliet, discovers her dead lover and likewise kills herself. The play by the "rude mechanicals" does turn out to be hilarious, but not because it was intended to be. Bottom misunderstands from the start.
This is a very mild oath, literally a mumbled version of "By our ladykin," but meaning little more than "Goodness gracious."
Bottom's grammar, even for Shakespeare's time, is deplorable. This double superlative is not Elizabethan so much as it is just Bottom's typical excess.
Peter Quince is referring to the poetic form he will use for the prologue he has just agreed to write. Many scholars think he is referencing a common form for songs in which lines of eight syllables alternate with lines of six. (Bottom will sing just such a song in the unit that follows this.)
It is more likely, however, that he is referring to the sonnet form which opens with two quatrains (a stave of "eight") which establish and build a situation, followed by a quatrain and a couplet (a stave of "six") that provide a clever reversal. Shakespeare used just such a form for the prologue of Romeo and Juliet, a play written immediately before A Midsummer Night's Dream, and which is obviously being parodied at many points in this play. In either case, Bottom's response is not literary (or even sensible), but simply his knee-jerk reaction in favor of excess. "More is better," could be his motto.
When we finally hear this prologue in Unit 42, it is neither in ballad form nor in the form of a sonnet - although it is much closer to the latter - but is comprised of just two quatrains and a couplet (eight-and-two?).
yourselves] F
The Folio corrects Bottom's grammar so that "yourselves" agrees with the plural addressees, but the editor may just have missed the joke.
Wildfowl literally means "wild bird." Bottom means "wildlife," but as usual he gets it wrong.
Bottom means "effect."
This bit of necessary stage business is usually accomplished with a considerable amount of comic confusion and slapstick while the "rude mechanicals" search their belongings and their persons to come up with an almanac. Intriguingly, for no apparent reason the Folio gives Puck an entrance here–much earlier than is needed for his first speech in the scene. Many modern productions, based on this clue alone (which does not even appear in the Quartos) introduce Puck–apparently invisible-into this scene and let him serve as the ultimate source of the almanac.
Man-in-the-Moon
Many cultures around the world "see" patterns in the dark and light areas of the moon's surface. It is common for contemporary viewers in the Northern Hemisphere to see a face, which is called the "Man-in-the-Moon." Elizabethans, however, saw a man with a load of wood (bush of thorns) on his back accompanied by a pet. They added the idea that he must be carrying a lantern with him, causing the moon's bright glow.
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Modified from D.Helber at en.wikipedia — partially based on an earlier version from Pietz at de.wikipedia. - Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Cépey using CommonsHelper.
Bottom means "figure," that is, portray.
At this point in the line, Bottom demonstrates some manner of holding his hand, often by making a circle with his thumb and first finger as in the "okay" sign. This generally passes almost unnoticed, but will become very important later, as it sets up an extended joke about the "wall's hole" during the performance of Pyramus and Thisbe in Act 5.
swag'ring: swa gring [ˈswæ grɪŋ].
Bisyllabic: As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
t'ward: twohrd [twoʊrd]. The preferred pronunciation of "Toward" is one syllable. It is necessary here for the scansion.
flow'rs: flourz [flaʊrz]
As noted in previous uses in the play, this word is often shortened in Shakespeare, and in everyday speech.
Bottom's line, with Quince's correction, forms a famous textual crux. Almost all editors agree that the sequence (as printed in the Quartos and unsatisfactorily corrected in the Folio) is corrupt. The basis of the joke is clearly that Bottom has confused the word odious, which mean "disgusting," with the word odorous, which means "fragrant." It takes a good deal of editorial emendation to produce a satisfactory reading, however.
Bottom's line (in the original spelling) reads:
"Thisby, the flowers of odious sauors sweet"
To which Quince responds "Odours, odorous" in the Quartos and "Odours, odours" in the Folio.
The meaning of Bottom's line is hard to parse, even with Quince's correction, but this edition accepts the paraphrase, "the flowers have strong, sweet fragrances." This is using the same sense of "savors" as employed by the fairy in Unit 7, line 11. "Odorous" must then mean "strong smelling." To get to that understanding, one must accept that "of" means "have." Those two words sound the same when in an unstressed position. We still find this confusion in rapid contemporary speech where people say (and sometimes also write) "could of," when they mean "could have."
Quince's response as indicated in the Quarto text might be interpreted to mean, "From the root word 'odors,' the correct word is 'odorous,'" but that is a difficult stretch requiring the performance of a great deal of sub-text on the part of the actor and implies more etymological knowledge than Quince otherwise seems to possess. The Folio seems clearer, with Quince stating and then reiterating the correct word is "odors." The problem is that, once odious is corrected to odors, Bottom's line does not render a sensible meaning.
This edition has adapted a bold emendation that is widely employed in modern performance practice. "Of" is modernized to "have." Quince's response is expanded so that he first reacts incredulously, implying "Did you just say odious?" He then supplies the correct reading – "odorous."
This edition leaves unchanged Bottom's response, "odors," assuming that even after correction, he still gets it wrong.
Pyramus hears Thisbe's voice.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
PUCK] F; QUINCE Qq
Both Quartos assign this speech to Quince. In modern performance this assignment is sometimes retained. The line can work as a frustrated aside. When played this way, Puck usually gets the idea to fix the asshead on Bottom after overhearing this line.
"Mary" means little more than "oh my goodness" but is the mildly controversial (because it was once thought blasphemous) remnant of an oath – "I swear by the Virgin Mary."
Thisbe's quatrain is written in iambic hexameter, or Alexandrine, verse. This twelve-syllable verse line was common in English drama before Marlowe (and subsequently Shakespeare) popularized the use of blank verse. The implication is that Quince's play is very old-fashioned.
Technically, "radiant" should be bisyllabic: rey-dyuhnt [ˈreɪ dyənt], but in modern performance it rarely is, in order to convey Flute's lack of experience with verse.
The quality of the verse is, for satiric effect, wretched. Pyramus is described both as being "lily-white" and "the color of the red rose." A rosebush is said to be "triumphant," although in what sense is unfathomable. "Brisky," which is not a word, is employed (instead of brisk) simply in order to add a needed syllable, and the already archaic form "eke," meaning also, is likewise padding. The most ridiculous part of the speech describes Pyramus as a "most lovely Jew," even though he was not at all Jewish (and for that matter is not lovely either), apparently in order to provide a rhyme for "hue." The bizarre image as being "true as the truest horse" is already absurd, without the additional description as being one that would never tire – a silly postscript again used simply to provide a rhyme.
Ninus was the mythical founder of the city of Ninevah in ancient Assyria, who was buried near the city of Babylon. Ovid set the story of Pyramus and Thisbe's untimely deaths near this site. Flute, obviously, has no idea who Ninus was.
Published by Guillaume Rouille (1518?-1589) - "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
Public Domain
In the early modern (i.e. Shakespearean) theatre, actors were not given complete scripts of the play. Because scripts had to be hand-copied that would be far too expensive. They were, instead, given a scroll that contained only their lines and their cues – the two or three words they would hear from their scene partners just it is time for them to speak. These were wrapped around a dowel creating a "roll" from which we now take the word "role," meaning the actor's part.
Quince is muttering under his breath that Flute does not understand how his script works and seems to have a tendency to read both his lines and the short cues indiscriminately. Although that may have occurred in some past rehearsal, it is not what has happened in this case, where Flute has apparently just skipped ahead to his next speech without pausing for Bottom to re-enter and speak.
fair] Rowe; the word is absent from QF
As printed in all early editions, this line is only nine syllables long. A long series of editors has deduced that it must be corrupt, and accepted the emendation adopted here on the grounds that a compositor might fail to pick up the repeated word. The tide turned, however, with Brooks in his 1979 Arden edition. In his usual contrarian manner, he asserted that the line is correct without the added word, but the first "fa-ir" should be sounded (in thick rustic dialect) as two syllables. Since Brooks, many contemporary editors have acted as if the line is not corrupt so they leave it alone, but with very dubious supporting arguments, or no commentary at all.
Optional "Chase" Music, and Possible Dance
The frantic comings-and-goings of Bottom's terrified friends are sometimes accompanied by music. Puck's line that he will lead them "about a round" literally means that he will lead them in a round dance, but he may be speaking metaphorically.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
'bout: Monosyllabic; the first vowel sound is simply omitted. This is extremely common in everyday speech.
Puck's speech is written in iambic pentameter except for this line, which is in the meter he uses for casting magic spells – iambic tetrameter. Perhaps the implication is that he is manipulating the mechanicals' behavior magically with this line.
Song
Bottom brays out a song to calm himself at this point, which in modern performance is not always the one indicated in the text as almost any pop song will work here. "The Ousel Cock" was apparently a well-known song in the Elizabethan period, which owed its comic popularity to the similarity in sound between the call of the cuckoo and the word "cuckold."
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
flow'ry: flou-ree [ˈflaʊ ri]
The root of this word, flower, is often shortened in Shakespeare, and in everyday speech. This principle is extended here to the adjectival form.
enthrallèd: en-thraw-led [ɛnˈθrɔ lɛd]. The past tense is separately sounded as a syllable.
Elizabethans used metaphors concerning wood to describe states of stupidity or madness. (We still retain some of these in formulations like, "blockheaded" and "knotheaded.") Demetrius makes just such a joke in Unit 10, line 194, when he says that he is "wood within this wood," i.e. being driven mad in the forest. Here Bottom is literally saying he needs to get out of the forest, but he is also punning on his desire to shake off the crazy nightmare he seems to be having.
Although this couplet does not use the meter associated with magic spells in this play, in contemporary performance Bottom almost always attempts to leave and is "magically" prevented from doing so at this point
wheth': hweth [ˈʰwɛð]; The rule by which medial Vs are sometimes eliminated also occasionally applies, as here, to words with TH in the middle.
The word "whether" occupies only one syllable, but there is no common agreement about how to make it do so in contemporary performance practice. Originally, it was elided to “whe’er,” which confusingly sounds exactly like “where.” Probably just omitting the second syllable is the most intelligible for a modern audience. A very common "solution," however, is to pronounce the word fully and ignore the irregularity that results.
pressèd: pre-sed [ˈprɛ sɛd]; The final two letters are separately sounded as a syllable.
flow'rs: flourz [flaʊrz]
As noted previously, this word is often shortened in Shakespeare, and in everyday speech.
In early editions, this line contains one more "And I." This twelve-syllable line is not divided in the Quartos or the Folio, but almost all modern editions divide the line among the four speakers. The most popular division, first established by Rowe, goes:
PEASEBLOSSOM: Ready.
COBWEB: And I.
MOTE: And I.
MUSTARDSEED: And I.
ALL: Where shall we go?
***
The slightest variation on this has Mote and Mustardseed speak at the same time, thus restoring the iambic pentameter:
PEASEBLOSSOM: Ready.
COBWEB: And I.
MOTE and MUSTARDSEED: And I.
ALL: Where shall we go?
***
In contemporary performance practice, the lines are often divided in a way that has each fairy speak only once:
PEASEBLOSSOM: Ready.
COBWEB: And I.
MOTE: And I.
MUSTARDSEED: Where shall we go?
curtᵞous: kur-tyuhs [ˈkɜr tyʌs]; Bisyllabic. the word "courteous" occupies only two syllables in the scansion. Many words with a central syllable consisting of only one vowel sound were, in Elizabethan English, interchangeably pronounced as trisyllabic or (by losing their middle vowel) bisyllabic. (The word "violet," at line 253 in Unit 11, is another example.) The scansion tells us the latter is the case here.
fi'ry: fai-ree [ˈfaɪ ri]; Bisyllabic after elision of the central schwa [ə] in "fiery."
Hai-uhl: hey-uhl [heɪ əl].
The greetings of the four fairies together make up one iambic pentameter line, because (in all four cases) "hail" is pronounced as a two syllable word. In modern performance practice, however, this is frequently ignored without much negative effect.
Bisyllabic: hey-uhl [heɪ əl].
Bisyllabic: hey-uhl [heɪ əl].
Bisyllabic: hey-uhl [heɪ əl].
Before the advent of adhesive bandages, minor cuts were wrapped in sticky cobwebs to bind the wound and stop the bleeding. Bottom is joking that he will utilize Cobweb's medical skills when needed.
of] Dyce ; omit QF
This word does not appear in any of the early texts, but it is part of a formula that is repeated with each fairy, so it seems likely that it was an inadvertant omission rather than an intentional variation.
In contemporary productions, an interval (intermission break) is often inserted at the end of this scene.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
The image body relating to the moon continues here, where the gathering fog is described as if the moon were an eye brimming with tears. When the moon weeps, i.e. when it rains, then the plants also cry - because the rain drops fall off them. Tytania imagines they are crying because they are forcibly separated from their lovers - an idea that tells us more about her than about the flowers.
wat'ry: waw-tree [ˈwɔ tri]; Bisyllablic.
As is often the case with Shakespeare, when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
enforcèd: en-fawr-sed [ɛnˈfɔr sɛd]; The final two letters are separately sounded as a syllable
love's] Pope; lover's QF
In all the early editions this word is "lover's," which is extrametrical. Pope proposed that the one-syllable form was what was always intended, and most modern editors have accepted this emendation.
In the contemporary theatre this play is usually presented in two acts with the interval (or intermission) placed here.
Recessional
The bland stage direction that the stage clears at this point fails to suggest how elaborate this exit can be in modern production. Bottom is often led away in an almost Dionysian parade. Music is frequently used to build a climactic moment just before intermission.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Optional Trumpet Flourish or Fairy Music
If an intermission is taken just before this scene, then a musical start to the second half is frequently employed here. Whatever choice is made for this cue is usually related the optional music at the start of Unit 8.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
sprite: [spraɪt]; In early modern verse our two syllable word "spirit" was commonly shortened to a single syllable, interchangeably pronounced "sprit" or "sprite." (See Unit 7, lines 1 and 31 for other examples.)
This line is regular once the elision to "sprite" is observed. It is, of course, possible to treat the second syllable of "spirit" as a feminine ending, but this is a case where "sprite" is more evocative of contemporary meaning, as well as historically more likely.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
shall'west: shal-west [ˈʃæl wɛst]
Trisyllabic words, like "shallowest," often lose their middle syllable, as here, when it consists only of a vowel sound.
fixèd: fik-sed [ˈfɪk sɛd]; The past tense is sounded as an extra syllable.
answerèd: an-se-red [ˈæn sə rɛd]; The final two letters are separately sounded as a syllable.
Mimic] F; Minnick, minnock Qq
Apparently unfamiliar with the word "mimic," meaning "actor," the compositor of Q1 mistook the handwritten "m" in the mansucript for "nn." Most modern editors accept this emendation as an non-substantive incidental, although Chaudhuri retains Q1's reading.
a stump] Johnson
In folklore, pucks were renowned for their earth-shaking foot stomps, but because the plural "our" does not seem correct, many editors have suspected corruption in the text. "A stump," could easily trip up a terrified man.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
Spelled "ore" in the Quarto, this is a certain shortening which applies to both instances in the line.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
thee: thee [ði]; One would expect the application of the The+Vowel Rule here, but for purposes of preserving the meter "the" is given its own syllable in this case. To prevent it bleeding into the next word, the vowel is lengthened to its long form.
Athenᵞan's: uh-theen-yuhnz [əˈθin yənz]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
thee: thee [ði]; One would expect the application of the The+Vowel Rule here, but for purposes of preserving the meter "the" is given its own syllable in this case. To prevent it bleeding into the next word, the vowel is lengthened to its long form.
Sometimes, in performance, Puck seems to mock Oberon's use of the long "thee" in the previous speech.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
gi'n: treat as giv nmee [ˈgɪv nmi]; In Shakespeare's era this word would have been shorted to a single syllable that sounded like the final one of "begin" [gɪn].
Like many applications of the "Missing V Rule," this one is problematic because a modern audience can no longer easily understand what word is meant by that pronunciation. In this particular case, modern performance practice is usually to retain all the sounds, but to group them differently. Think "give nme." (This takes a little practice, not because the sounds can't be arranged into two syllables, but because we are not used to the "nm" combination in English.) giv nmee [ˈgɪv nmi].
B'ing over: bing oh-vuhr [bɪŋˈoʊ vər]; The four syllable phrase "Being over" occupies the space of only three syllables in this line. Spelling in Q1 would indicate fully pronouncing the first word and making the second subject to the application of the "Missing V Rule": bee-ing awr [ˈbɪ ɪŋ ɔr]. One can't be sure whose decision that was, however, because spelling of early modern texts was determined by the compositor setting the type for the printed edition. It was not necessarily the same as the manuscript.
The rhythm works better and the line is slightly more intelligible to audience members if the first word becomes monosyllabic and the second is fully pronounced, and such is usual modern performance practice.
This line is only four syllables long. Modern performance practice for a short line like this is to assume that something should happen physically that fills the space of the other six syllables, although there is no authority that asserts this until the modern era. Hermias frequently challenge Demetrius here, by taking (or attempting to take) his sword.
stol'n away: stohln [ˈstoʊln]. This contraction is exceptionally easy to accomplish, simply by moving the sound of the final "n" to the start of the next word. Think: stole naway.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
th'Antipodes: than-ti-puh-deez [ðænˈtɪ pəˌdiz]. The word "the" elides into the next word, as is natural in everyday speech, because it starts with a vowel sound.
In modern parlance, the Antipodes are the direct opposite points on the globe. A secondary definition extends to those peoples who dwell on the other side of the globe (people whose feet are literally planted in direct opposition). It can also mean the exact opposite of a person or thing.
In this case, Hermia is utilizing about every available definition of the word: geographical (the opposite sides of the globe), chronological (midnight/noon), visual (light/dark) and metaphorical (feminine/masculine). The moon is considered feminine because it is domain of the goddess Diana, and the sun the domain of her brother, the god Apollo.
Photo by Sailko of a column top in the Cathedral of Mantua
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic license.
murd'rer: mur-drer [ˈmɜr drər]. As often happens with trisyllabic words with a schwa in the middle, the schwa is dropped making the pronunciation bisyllabic.
murd'rer: mur-drer [ˈmɜr drər]. This is exactly the same case as Hermia's speech just three lines earlier.
Here, Demetrius is referring to the planet Venus, named after the Roman goddess of love, which apart from the Sun and Moon is the brightest light in the sky. The phrase “in her glimmering sphere” refers not to the shape of the planet, but its orbit. Until about the 17th century, most educated Europeans were familiar with the Ptolemaic model (originally conceived of by Plato) of a perfect spherical orbit of heavenly objects.
"Venus-pacific-levelled" by Brocken Inaglory
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
glimm'ring: glim-ring [ˈglɪm rɪŋ]; "Glimmering" becomes bisyllabic through elimination of its middle vowel.
This is another example of the central syllable of a three-syllable word, comprised only of a schwa [ə], being elided to fit the meter.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Contraction to I'd: ahyd [aɪd]. Although not formally notated in the Quartos or the Folio, the first two words occupy only one syllable. This is the kind of rhythmic implication an actor was expected to hear and apply from the scansion.
driv'st: drahyvst [draɪvst]. "Drivest" is contracted to a single syllable here by eliminating the final vowel sound.
e'en: een [in] In a contraction familiar from poetry and literature, even is shortened to a single syllable.
b'ing: bing [bɪŋ]. Although this may, at first, seem odd, if you listen to real people speak you will notice that this word is usually reduced to a single syllable.
privïlege: pri-vuh-lij [ˈprɪ vəlɪdʒ]; We are used to hearing this word as bisyllabic, but-for emphasis-Hermia is fully pronouncing it here
so] Pope; omit QF
In the Quartos and Folio, this line is only nine syllables long, and is missing the rhyme to its couplet. Pope first suggested this obvious correction.
wheth': hweth [ˈʰwɛð]; The rule by which medial Vs are sometimes eliminated also occasionally applies, as here, to words with TH in the middle.
The word "whether" occupies only one syllable, but there is no common agreement about how to make it do so in contemporary performance practice. Originally, it was elided to “whe’er,” which confusingly sounds exactly like “where.” Probably just omitting the second syllable is the most intelligible for a modern audience. A very common "solution," however, is to pronounce the word fully and ignore the irregularity that results.
Foll'wing: fol-wing [ˈfɒl wɪŋ] This word becomes bisyllabic, using the principle by which when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
Demetrius is making an elaborate pun on "heaviness," meaning both sadness and exhaustion. He suggests that sorrow gets worse when sleep, like a person who is bankrupt, cannot pay its debts - that is, fails to refresh. He is planning to lie down and wait for sleep to make an offer (a tender) for at least part of the deficit.
heavᵞer: he-vyuhr [ˈhɛ vyɜr]; The final two syllables of this word are smoothed together.
sleep] Rowe; slip QF
Both Quartos and the Folio read "slippe" at this location, which is plausibly a different word but most likely is just a variant spelling. Rowe first emended the line.
"Over" becomes "o'er": awr-roolz [ɔrˈrulz]. It is a conventional contraction to shorten "over" to "o'er," even when it appears as part of a longer word.
This line of Puck's is once again in iambic tetrameter, the alternate verse form that Shakespeare frequently employs in this play when indicating that magic is involved.
“Tartar” was a name attributed to certain tribes by the Europeans and Russians during the rise of the Mongolian Empire, such as the Turks, Mongols, and Manchus. The name is derived from the Tatar tribal confederation of the Mongols, which were subjugated by Ghengis Khan and made part of his conquest. The name was later broadly applied to any Turkish-speaking person. They were considered savage warriors and famed for their considerable skill with bows.
Image from The Chinese War by Lt. John Ouchterlony, Madras Engineers (1844)
Public Domain
All eight lines of this short speech are cast in iambic tetrameter, as is typical in this play for magic spells, and all eight begin with a silent syllable, called a "catalexis." Originally all eight lines also rhymed, because the final y in almost all words was pronounced in its long form during the Elizabethan era. These historic rhymes are sometimes preserved in modern performance to give Oberon's magic an ancient feel.
glorᵞously: glawr-yuhs-lee [ˈglɔr yəs li]. The first "ee" sound in this word is converted to a "y" and blended into the following syllable.
wak'st: weykst [weɪkst]. In a commonly employed contraction, "wakest" is shortened to a single syllable.
All twelve lines of this short scene are cast in iambic tetrameter couplets, and all except Oberon's second line (#117) begin with a silent syllable, called a "catalexis."
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
prepost'rously: pri-po-struh-slee [prɪˈpɒ strə sli]; This word is elided by combining two central syllables.
The verse form shifts to a complicated rhyme scheme at this point. Lysander begins with a quatrain followed by a couplet, ABABCC, which Helena then mirrors exactly. They then trade a pair of lines that form another couplet. At that point, Lysander has another line which we might expect Helena to again answer with a rhyming line, but Demetrius awakens before she can speak.
A significant number of editors suspect corruption here, and believe that Helena has a missing line, but the surprise effect of Demetrius popping awake early is powerful and may well be intentional.
dev'lish: dev-lish [ˈdɛv lɪʃ]. Often in three-syllable words, where the central syllable consists only of a schwa, the word is shortened by eliminating it. Such is the case here.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
The rhyme with "more" makes this a certain shortening.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
The rhyme with "swore" makes this a certain shortening.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
From this point on, the unit proceeds in rhymed couplets. (The only exception is a quick aside at line 168, where Helena tosses in a triplet.)
congealèd: kuhn-jeel-uhd [kənˈdʒil əd]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable:
The Taurus Mountains are a high mountain range that divides southern Turkey from central Anatolia. In ancient-times, they were associated with storms and storm-gods, which were depicted as bulls.
Mountaintops used to hold great symbolic significance as pure places untouched by human hands, as well as being close to the heavens. Their significance has lessened considerably during our time. Over the course of the Enlightenment, mountain climbs became increasingly popular. The 19th century in particular saw a huge burst of first-time climbs to mountaintops. However, during Shakespeare’s life, mountains still held an insurmountable quality. Only seventeen mountains were recorded as having been scaled to their peaks. To reach a mountaintop was a rare and noteworthy feat.
"Demirkazik Crest of Aladag Mountains in Nigde Turkey" by Zeynel Cebeci
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
hold'st: hohldst [hoʊldst]. Although inauthentic practice, this word is sometimes simply shortened to its modern form, "hold," for clarity.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuhz [ˈhɜrm yʌz]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
e'er: air [ɛər]. Utilizing the common poetic convention of eliminating the middle V sound this word is reduced to a single syllable. (In Q1, it is spelled "ere," making clear the application of the "Missing V" rule.)
fi'ry: fai-ree [ˈfaɪ ri]; Bisyllabic after elision of the central schwa [ə] in "fiery."
seek'st: seekst [sikst]. Although inauthentic practice, this word is occasionally shortened to its modern form, "seek," in performance for clarity.
confed'racy: kuhn-fe-druh-see [kənˈfɛ drə si]; As with many words containing an isolated vowel sound (or r-influenced vowel sound in this case) as a central syllable, the vowel is sometimes elided. Such is the case here.
Injurᵞus: in-joor-yuhs [ɪnˈdʒʊər yəs]; Typical of the more clipped pronunciation associated with British dialects, the final two syllables of this word are elided together.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
With this line the verse in this unit shifts from rhymed couplets into blank verse, bringing a new gravity to Helena's fears and the rest of the scene.
derisïon: dih-rih-zhee-uhn [dɪˈrɪ ʒi ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation was divided into two syllables in Elizabethan speech.
Until recently, expanded endings of this type were frequently ignored in production practice, but with the growing interest in original pronunciation, it is becoming more common to observe them.
quite] Taylor; omit QF
This troubling line is only nine syllables long in all three Renaissance editions. The vast majority of editors accept the diagnosis of corruption, although it is occasionally argued as intentional, and that in performance the space of one syllable should be occupied by a shrug or a search for a word.
A number of emendations have been suggested, including a plausible insertion of "now" at this point. Gary Taylor argues in the Oxford edition that Shakespeare modified "forgot" with "quite" ten times in the canon, far more than any other choice, and that is the most likely remedy here.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
neelds: In the rural dialect of Shakespeare's youth, the word "needles" was pronounced: neeldz [nildz]; He apparently favored this inversion into his adulthood, as the line is metrically bizarre otherwise. In his 1979 edition for Arden, Harold Brooks asserted that even at that late date this pronunciation was still common.
incorp'rate: in-kawr-prit [ɪnˈkɔr prɪt]; This is yet another case where a word with a centrally isolated vowel sound is treated as elastic, and the syllable is eliminated.
a] F
The Folio adopts the more modern convention here, and it is often utilized in performance.
partitïon: pahr-ti-see-uhn [pɑrˈtɪ si ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation is divided into two syllables in Elizabethan practice.
Until recently, expanded endings of this type were frequently ignored in production practice, but with the growing interest in original pronunciation, it is becoming more common to observe them.
first, like] Theobald; first life QqF
Most modern editions accept Theobald's suggestion that the original compositor misread the manuscript, which is easily possible given the similarity of form of the cursive letters "f" and "k." Gabriel Egan suggests the original, however, is a simile from heraldry and might be correct.
crownèd: krou-ned [ˈkraʊ nɛd]; Bisyllabic, as the past tense is treated as a separate syllable.
amazèd: uh-mey-zed [əˈmeɪ zɛd]; The past tense is sounded.
passionate] F; omit Qq
The Folio emendation of this line is uncontroversial. In the quartos the line is only eight syllables long, and the correction is not easily imagined as uninformed editorial guesswork. Most editors agree it was corrected from the promptbook. It requires a two-syllable pronunciation: pass'nate.
In a contraction familiar from poetry and literature, even is shortened to a single syllable: een [in]
In Greek and Roman mythology, nymphs were semi-divine spirits; they were young, beautiful maidens that lived in particular natural locations and helped animate them—rivers and woods, primarily. As divine beings, they could mate with gods and give birth to immortal children. They could not die of old age or illness, but were beholden to death by the hands of greater powers or magic.
"Hylas and the Nymphs" by John William Waterhouse
Public Domain
celestᵞal: suh-les-chuhl [səˈlɛs tʃəl]. This is actually the preferred pronunciation, but is less common than the four-syllable expansion in many parts of the US.
affectïon: uh-fek-see-uhn [əˈfɛk si ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation is divided into two syllables in Elizabethan practice
Until recently, expanded endings of this type were frequently ignored in production practice, but with the growing interest in original pronunciation, it is becoming more common to observe them.
mis-er-a-ble: In this case, all four syllables are fully and separately pronounced: mi-zer-uh-buhl [ˈmɪ zər ə bəl]. This is usually played as Helena being comically self-pitying at this moment.
Perséver: pur-sev-er [pɜrˈsɛv ər] A relatively small number of words have shifted accentuation since Shakespeare's time, but this is one that regularly appears in the canon and frustrates scansion. In this case the accent belongs on the second syllable. This is still observed in some British dialects.
prayers] Theobald; praise QF
One of Shakespeare's earliest editors suggested that Helena's "praise" cannot be sensibly described as "weak." He proposed that the reading should be "prayers," which certainly makes more sense.
The play specifies that Hermia is shorter and darker in coloring than Helena, which Elizabethans thought less attractive than that of "fair-skinned" and "fair-haired" individuals. Lysander is referencing this fact by using an ethnic slur for someone from Africa. Few modern performances retain this pointedly offensive racial comment. Sometimes a three-syllable replacement is found, but usually this line and Demetrius' grammatically and metrically confused reply are simply cut.
Many editors have found this line very troubling because (as originally printed) Lysander's half line and Demetrius' half line combined still only constitute nine syllables. Although many explanations have been put forth, the simplest one is that the marked contraction is not trustworthy. The line should read, "He will."
Rodney Stenning Edgecombe suggests a much more complicated solution to this crux which holds some interest. He proposes that Demetrius' full line should read "No, no--a Helen! | (To Lysander) You seem to break loose..." He believes the compositor did not understand the chivalric implication of Demetrius' reference to Helen of Troy, and changed "Helen" to "heele" on his own volition.
This is most likely a biblical allusion. Lysander is calling Hermia treacherous and sly, like the snake in the Garden of Eden. There is the imagery of sin and lust; Lysander is indirectly calling his former love for Hermia a passing lust and no true love.
This is also a staging clue suggesting Hermia is attempted to soothe Lysander by pressing herself to him.
This line is again an ethnic slur referencing Hermia's dark coloring. Because Lysander's reply makes sense if he begins with "Out, loathed medicine," the entire line is frequently cut in modern performance.
loathèd: loh-thed [ˈloʊ ðɛd]; The past tense is sounded.
med'cine: med-suhn [ˈmɛd sən]. As is still common in British usage this word is bisyllabic in this line.
This metrically complex line has eleven syllables, even after accommodating the necessary expansion of "loathèd," and elision of "med'cine." It is usually assumed that it should be scanned as an epic ceasura, meaning it has a "tail" but located at the central full stop rather than the line end.
The medial "O" adds nothing to the sense of the line, however, and is frequently omitted in performance, which makes the line regular.
poison] Q2F
Although the Q1 reading is the more sensible, Q2's alternative "poison" is perfectly compatible with Shakespeare's practice with equating medicines and poisons.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
This twelve-syllable line is composed of six regular iambics. It seems intentionally extra-metrical giving emphasis to the double ending "of questíon, of doubt."
Unless John Dover Wilson's speculation is correct (see next note) it is not a classically balanced Alexandrine, but no edition has argued that it is corrupt. It is one of the few times in Midsummer that the verse seems purposely to deviate from iambic pentameter for a single line to make an interpretive point.
questïon: kwes-chee-uhn [ˈkwɛs tʃi ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation is divided into two syllables in Elizabethan practice.
Until recently, expanded endings of this type were frequently ignored in production practice, but with the growing interest in original pronunciation, it is becoming more common to observe them.
of question or doubt] Wilson
All three Renaissance editions agree in the reading "of," but John Dover Wilson pointed out this twelve syllable line would be a perfectly balanced Alexandrine if it used the more familiar phrase "question OR doubt."
juggaler: juh-guh-ler [ˈdʒʌ gə lər]; As is common in everyday speech a "glide-vowel" is inserted in the middle of this word making it trisyllabic.
stol'n: stohln [ˈstoʊln]
This contraction was extremely common in Shakespeare's time, but it does not affect the scansion (except when preserving an archaic sound) so the word "in" is often fully pronounced in modern performance.
pers'nage: purs-nij [ˈpɜrs nɪdʒ]; By eliminating a central syllable consisting of an isolated schwa sound the word becomes bisyllabic. Notice that this does not apply to the second occurance in the line where the word is fully (and emphatically) trisyllabic.
This is a double-insult. A maypole is a tall wooden pole used in various folk festivals around Europe. Here Hermia is calling Helena awkwardly tall and gangly. Painted is an allusion to the heavy use of make-up.
gentlemen] Q2F; gentleman Q1
Q2's correction from the singular to the plural is uncontroversial.
Because only one syllable is alloted, "she is" becomes contracted to "she's." This is not marked in the original texts, but is the sort of detail a trained actor was expected to be able to scan for themselves.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
is't: ist [ɪst]. This common contraction is marked in all three early modern editions, making the scansion certain.
This line is twelve syllables long, but not in the classically balanced form of an Alexandrine. No major editor has suggested corruption of the original, but since both extrametrical syllables are unstressed that suggests the line might well be incorrect. Perhaps the shortened form of the name, "Helen," was intended, in which case the line would be regular with a tail. A busy compositor might well have overlooked this detail and added a final "a" that was not in the manuscript.
Because only one syllable is alloted, "she is" becomes contracted to "she's."
hind'ring: hin dring [ˈhɪn drɪŋ]: This word follows the frequently observed principle that isolated schwa sounds can be eliminated in the middle of words
officᵞous: uh-fi-shuhs [əˈfɪ ʃəs]
dar'st: dairst [dɛərst]. Although inauthentic practice this word is sometimes shortened to its modern form, "dare," for clarity in modern performance.
mistak'st: mi-steykst [mɪˈsteɪkst]. Bisyllabic by elision of the final vowel.
committ'st: kuh-mitst [kəˈmɪtst]. This is another one of those words that is occasionally (and inauthentically) shortened to its modern form, "commit," for clarity.
knav'ries: neyv-reez [ˈneɪv riz]; The isolated central schwa is eliminated to make this word, meaning "tricks," bisyllabic.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
With this line the unit shifts from blank verse into rhymed couplets.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
Acheron is river in Greece that in classical mythology leads into the underworld, like the river Styx in Roman mythology. The dead were ferried across it by Charon in order to reach the Underworld.
Illustration by Gustave Dore for Dante's Inferno
Public Domain
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
Spelled "ore" in the Quarto, this is a certain shortening.
virt(w)ous: vur-chwuhs [ˈvɜr tʃwəs]. The liquid "w" sound is acting as a vowel in the word "virtuous," allowing the final two syllables to elide together into one.
derisïon: dih-rih-zee-uhn [dɪˈrɪ zi ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation was divided into two syllables in Elizabethan speech.
Until recently, expansions of this type were frequently ignored in production practice but with the growing interest in original pronunciation it is becoming more common to observe them.
visïon: vih-zee-uhn [ˈvɪ zi ən]: The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation was divided into two syllables in Elizabethan speech.
This word completes a couplet. It must rhyme with the preceding line, so whatever practice is followed there must be utilized here also.
Indᵞan: in dyuhn [ˈɪn dyən]; Blended into two syllables.
The two-syllable pronunciation is common in British dialects.
charmèd: chahr-med [ˈtʃɑr mɛd]; The final two letters are separately sounded as a syllable.
Aurora was the Roman goddess of the dawn, who would fly across the sky and announce the arrival of the Sun.
The actual object Puck is referring to is most likely the planet Mercury, which appears in the east just before sunrise.
"Apollo and Aurora" by Gerard de Lairesse (1671)
Public Domain
wand'ring: wahn dring [ˈwɑn drɪŋ]. This contraction is very common in everyday speech, and was so common in Elizabethan England that the word is actually spelled "wandring" in QF.
Damnèd: dam-ned [ˈdæm nɛd]. The past tense is separately sounded as a syllable.
Here, Puck is differentiating between two different kinds of ghosts: those who have simply wandered from their graves and those who have no proper resting place. The latter are victims of natural disasters (thus “buried” in the water) and suicides (who were often buried at crossroads and not at churches). In particular, crossroads have long been associated with uneasiness where unnatural things might occur. They later became the place for the outcast and restless dead.
Shakespeare emphasizes the difference between these darker spirits and the fairies that exist in the play.
In a contraction familiar from poetry and literature, even is shortened to a single syllable: een [in]
fi'ry: fai-ree [ˈfaɪ ri]; Bisyllabic after elision of the central schwa [ə] in "fiery."
Op'ning: ohp ning [ˈoʊp nɪŋ]. This is yet another case when the word becomes bisyllabic when the isolated central schwa is eliminated.
blessèd: bles-ed [ˈblɛs ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Although still less preferred than the one-syllable alternative, this is one of the few expanded endings that have survived into modern times and is still in use.
Puck slips again into his preferred form for magical incantations, iambic tetrameter, which begins each line with a silent beat (catalexis). In fact, the first line contains two of them, one before each "up." He finishes with a short prose line.
Once Lysander enters, the unit returns to blank verse but with an exceptionally large number of shared lines and an odd line with a "tail" at 425.
Optional Song, or "Confusion Music"
Nothing in the Elizabethan texts for this play indicate that Puck is singing here, but a popular song from the period with almost identical lyrics suggests that it is possible. Whether or not Puck sings, musical underscoring often used to suggest the fog rolling in and the comic confusion of the young men.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
look'st: lookst [lʊkst]; Monosyllabic. Although inauthentic, and scorned by purists, this word is sometimes shortened to its modern form, "look," for clarity in modern performance.
recr'ant: rek rant [ˈre krənt]. "Recreant" loses its middle vowel through elision. Because this is difficult for a modern audience to parse, however, some productions leave it at full length then compensate by cutting one of the next two words. Of course, many productions simply ignore the problem.
fall'n: fawln [fɔln]; Monosyllabic. Although this may, at first, seem odd, it is quite common in hurried everyday speech.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
All early editions, and virtually all modern editions, print this as a nine-syllable line with "com'st" contracted. It seems unlikely that it was intended as a prose line, however, as it forms part of a couplet.
All three lovers speak rhymed iambic pentameter in this unit, with both couplets and quatrains utilized.
dar'st: dairst [dɛərst]. Although inauthentic practice this word is sometimes shortened to its modern form, "dare," for clarity in modern performance.
runn'st: runst [rʌnst]. Like "dar'st" in the previous line this word is sometimes shortened to its modern form, in this case "run," for clarity in modern performance.
dar'st: dairst [dɛərst]. Whatever choice made with the occurrence of this word two lines earlier should be repeated here.
mock'st: mokst [mɒkst]. As with the two previous cases in this unit, although inauthentic this word is occasionally shortened to its modern form, "mock," for clarity.
tedᵞous: tee-juhs [ˈti dʒəs]
The final two syllables bleed together.
Puck is again speaking in iambic tetrameter, utilizing a beginning catalexis, and sometimes a second one at the caesura.
Heav'ns: hevnz [ˈhɛvnz]; In Elizabethan speech this word was shortened to "hea'ens" by eliminating the central consonant, rendering a pronunciation like "hens." Because this is no longer easily decodable by a modern audience, performance practice is now to retain the "v."
Because of the difficulty of this contraction, it is not always observed in performance.
This the only sustained speech in the play that is not written in an iambic meter. The first seven lines of this speech are in the very unusual anapestic dimeter–composed of two feet, each made up of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed one. This is not easily apparent, however, because Shakespeare employs numerous variations throughout the speech. The first and fourth lines are headless (i.e. contain an empty beat called a catalexis) immediately after the caesura, while the third, sixth and seventh have mid-line tails (epic caesuras)–meaning they have feminine endings attached to their first anapest.
The eighth through twelfth lines shift into Puck's familiar meter for incantations, iambic tetrameter. The third one of those lines uses heads (trochaic inversions) for both the first and third feet, however, which gives it a very different feeling.
The final line of the speech returns to anapestic dimeter, starting with a catalexis. The net effect is dazzling rhythmic variety while actually using only two basic meters.
That can be difficult to visualize, so the full speech is laid out below with accented syllables in bold; headless lines (i.e. catalexes) marked with this convention (X); and tails (feminine endings) marked by enclosing the syllable in square brackets []. The end of a foot is marked with a single stroke |, while a caesura is marked by a double stroke ‖.
On the ground, ‖ (X) sleep sound. |
I'll ap-ply ‖ to your eye, |
Gen-tle lov[er], ‖ rem-e-dy. |
When thou wak'st, ‖ (X) thou tak'st |
True de-light ‖ in the sight |
of thy for[mer] | la-dy's eye. |
And the coun[try] | poverb known,
That ev |'ry man | should take | his own,
(X) In | your wa |king shall | be shown. |
"Jack shall | have Jill; ‖ naught shall | go ill;"
The man | shall have | his mare | again,
(X) and all | shall be well.
To] Q2F; omit Q1
Missing in Q1, the addition of this word from Q2 is uncontroversial.
wak'st: waykst. [weɪkst] "Wakest" is contracted to a single syllable here by eliminating the final vowel sound.
tak'st: taykst. [teɪkst] "takest" is contracted to a single syllable here by eliminating the final vowel sound.
Optional Fairy Theme
If a musical theme is played at the top of Units 7 and 12, it is often used again here.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
flow'ry: flou-ree [ˈflaʊ ri]
The root of this word, flower, is often shortened in Shakespeare, and in everyday speech. This principle is extended here to the adjectival form.
This speech by Tytania is in the form of a rhyming quatrain (ABAB). Throughout the rest of the scene she speaks in blank verse while Bottom answers her in prose.
Bottom's "fair large ears"
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Bees do not actually have a "honey-bag," but they can become thoroughly coated with pollen creating the impression they do.
Melissodes druriella, F, Side, VA, Norfolk_2014-04-13-11.31.28 ZS PMax
Public Domain
Although this word occurs in a prose line, so is not subject to metrical adjustment, all early modern printings of the play indicate that Bottom speaks in dialect here using a shortened form of the word.
The tongs were a musical instrument comparable to the modern triangle, while the bones were clappers something like modern castanets. Bottom must not have as much affinity for music as he claims, as both of these are rhythm instruments that provide no tune. It is notable that Tytania seems to quickly distract him.
L'Allegra by Angelica Kauffman
Public Domain
Optional Incidental Music
Bottom is indicating music here, and the Folio (but not the quartos) has a stage direction calling for it to be played. This music is only rarely used in modern performance, and when it is it is often quickly interrupted.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
desir'st: dih-zahyrst [dɪˈzaɪrst]. "Desirest" is elided by a syllable here through eliminating the final vowel sound.
vent'rous for "venturous": ven-chruhs [ˈvɛn tʃrəs]. This is yet another case of a word with a central schwa that can be isolated, where the sound is simply eliminated.
off] Taylor; omit QF
In the Quartos and Folio, this line is only nine syllables long. Many modern editors suspect corruption. Taylor's emendation has been widely adopted. (Other suggestions have included "fetch thee thence" and "fetch for thee.") His idea seems more plausible than the alternative suggestion that "new" should be bisyllabic.
This simile has long concerned critics because woodbine and honeysuckle, which seem here to be intertwining as Tytania and Bottom as about to, are two names for the same climbing vine. One way of understanding this line would be that "the sweet honeysuckle" is a parenthetic phrase renaming and defining "woodbine." Tytania is then saying that she is like "woodbine, i.e. honeysuckle."
The more probable explanation, however, is simply that Shakespeare thought they were different plants.
orᵞent: ohr-yent [ˈoʊr yɛnt]: In this case we have yet another word-meaning "oriental"-in which the central, isolatable vowel is eliminated.
flow'rets': floh-rets [ˈfloʊ rets]. This word, meaning "small flowers," uses the same principle as that which regularly makes the root word, "flower," sound more like "flour."
patïence: pey-see-ents [ˈpeɪ sɪ ɛnts]. This is not always observed in modern performance, but it does not present intelligibility problems when it is.
bow'r: bour [baʊr]. Like "flower," this word is usually truncated.
transformèd: trans-fawr-med [trænsˈfɔr məd]; The past tense ending is sounded as a separate syllable.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
others] modern performance practice: other QF
Almost all modern editions gloss that this singular reference should be understood to mean the plural, i.e. others. In modern performance, it is usually simply made so, as here.
For this incantation, Oberon uses the typical verse form utilized in this play for such actions: iambic tetrameter. The first, second, and fourth lines are "headless."
Dian's bud is the herb Artemisia, a species of wormwood. The goddess Diana (known to the Greeks as Artemis) is the protectress of virginity, and the flower sacred to her (according to what Oberon is saying) can counteract the erotic power of the love potion created from the flower struck by Cupid's arrow.
Artemisia absinthium plate 587 in: Otto Wilhelm Thomé: Flora von Deutschland, Österreich u.d. Schweiz, Gera (1885)
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
o'er: awr [ɔr]
blessèd: bles-ed [ˈblɛs ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Although still less preferred than the one-syllable alternative, this is one of the few expanded endings that have survived into modern times and is still in use.
Etherial Music and Dance
This is one of the central musical incidents in the play. There is some flexibility to what exactly happens in response to her call for music, (see the essay "Music and Dance in Midsummer" for details) but music clearly plays from an unseen source at this point, or when Oberon repeats the command two lines later. After some dialogue, they then dance, symbolically signaling their new-found harmony.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
wak'st: weykst [weɪkst]. In a commonly employed contraction, "wakest" is shortened to a single syllable.
Oberon and Tytania "rock the ground."
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Thesᵞus': thees-yuhs [ˈθis yəs]. Occasionally, as in this case, this character's name occupies only two syllables. Here it is possessive, but it does not gain another syllable.
Thesᵞus: thees-yuhs [ˈθis yəs]. Occasionally, as in this case, this character's name occupies only two syllables.
Puck shifts into "headless" iambic tetrameter with this couplet. Oberon and Tytania each have a subsequent speech (both made of two couplets) using the same meter as Puck.
nightës: nahyt tuhs ['naɪ təs]; Bisyllabic. George Steevens first proposed (in his 1773 edition) that the archaic two-syllable possessive was implied here in order to understand the line as metrically regular. Most modern editors accept this emendation. Those who do not just ignore the resulting irregularity and associated performance issues. See a similar case in Unit 7 at line 5.
In productions which double Oberon/Theseus and Tytania/Hippolyta, this exit can provide a challenge because the actors must immediately re-enter in their alternate identities. Many modern productions provide a small musical interlude or add a sunrise lighting effect here to cover, while others openly and theatrically stage a full costume change in front of the audience.
Optional Incidental Music
If the actors play Oberon and Tytania are doubling Theseus and Hippolyta, there may be a need for a brief musical interlude here to cover their off-stage (or on-stage) change of costume. This may bleed into the flourish indicated at the top of the next scene.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Horn Flourish
The early texts call for a horn (rather than trumpet) flourish at this entrance, indicating that Theseus is out hunting rather than making a formal entrance into court. If a musical interlude is used as a transition between scenes, this is often the finish of it as opposed to a separate cue.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Hounds are a special breed of dog used for hunting in packs. This was a very popular sport in Shakespeare's time, and continued to fascinate the British aristocracy well into the Twentieth Century in the form of the fox hunt.
"La vénerie" by Jacques du Fouilloux, 1560
Public Domain
Taking into account the allowable variations, this is actually a regular line, but it employs a tail both here at the caesura and the line end so it has twelve syllables and a difficult rhythm. Late in Shakespeare's career such complicated metrics become common, but this is very unusual in this early play.
confusïon:Kuhn-fyoo-zee-uhn [kənˈfyu zi ən]; The final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation was divided into two syllables in Elizabethan speech.
Until recently, expansions of this type were frequently ignored in production practice but with the growing interest in original pronunciation it is becoming more common to observe them.
conjunctïon: Kuhn-jungk-see-uhn [kənˈdʒʌŋk si ən]; As in the previous rhyming line, the final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation was divided into two syllables in Elizabethan speech.
Because this is the second line of a couplet, whatever decision is made with the previous line should be matched here.
Bear-baiting was a popular and violent form of the hunt in which a pack of dogs tracked, cornered and killed a bear. The dogs were much admired for their bravery in attacking and conquering a larger and stronger animal, and watching them was thought to provide instruction in courage.
Painting by Abraham Hondius, 1650
Public Domain
Seem'd] F2; Seem QF
All modern editions accept this correction to the past tense from the Second Folio.
mut'al: myoo-chwuhl [ˈmyu tʃwəl]; The final two syllables are blended in the manner still common in British dialects.
Thessálᵞan: the-sey-lyuhn [θɛˈseɪ lyən]; The final two syllables of this adjective are blended together.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
May Day was the observance of the first day of summer, deriving from ancient pagan fertility festivals. By Shakespeare's time, the phallic procession had been tamed into a relatively benign dance around a pole, but it still held associations with fertility, which Theseus is slyly winking at in this line.
"May Day with people around the May Pole, 1920 (5857870435)" by OSU Special Collections & Archives : Commons - May Day with people around the May Pole, 1920
Licensed under No restrictions via Wikimedia Commons
Egeus: Ehd-jee-us [ɛdˈʒi ʌs]; Conventionally this name is pronounced in two syllables as eej-us, but in this play it always scans as three.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
This four syllable response cannot be connected to any other line to fill it out, as full iambic pentameter lines surround it. It is a true "short" line. Performance practice is to allow a pause, the length of six missing syllables, to be utilized after the line. It is a moment of great tension, and works very well in performance.
Horn Flourish
The horns again sound here, startling the young lovers. This returns them to the waking world of mortals, after having been lulled to sleep by supernatural music.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
amazèdly: uh-mey-zed-lee [əˈmeɪz ɛd li]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
th'Athenᵞan: thuh-theen-yun [ðəˈθin yən]; Both a contraction and an elision of "the Athenian."
The+vowel rule, and elision:
Two operations are at work here that reduce this line from 12 to 10 syllables: First, as in almost all instances where the word "the" precedes a word starting with a vowel, the two words are contracted by eliminating one of the vowels. Second, the suffix "ian" is pronounced in its one-syllable form.
stol'n: stohln [ˈstoʊln]
As is always the case in this play, Shakespeare treats "stolen" and monosyllabic.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Foll'wing: fol-wing [ˈfɒl wɪŋ] This word becomes bisyllabic, using the principle by which when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
pow'r: powr [paʊr]; As is always the case in this play, Shakespeare treats this word as monosyllabic.
Hermᵞa: hurm-yuh [ˈhɜrm yʌ]; As here, this character's name often occupies only two syllables.
"Is melted as the snow"] Rowe, or "Melted as melts the snow"] Wilson
Most editors and dramaturgs interpret this nine syllable line as a headless line, or catalexis, correct as printed.
"(X) Melted as the snow, seems to me now"
However, Shakespeare's first editor, Rowe, assumed that a missing word should occupy the space of the catalexis and supplied "Is."
In the Twentieth Century, John Dover Wilson also assumed textual corruption but could not accept Rowe's grammar. He, instead, suggested "Melted as melts…"
saw] Steevens; see QF
The vast majority of modern editors accept the past tense as correct here.
"in sickness," or "a sick man"] Rowe
This is a difficult phrase, but makes grammatical sense if Demetrius is personifying his former sickness as his entire self. Many editors, from the very first editions, have wondered if the text is corrupt and the implication of "sick man" is the intended reading. Because it is easier for the audience to parse, this alternative is often adopted in contemporary performance. Others have simply preferred making the phrase parallel to that in the next line.
Demetrius and Helena are reconciled.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Egeus: Ehd-jee-us [ɛdˈʒi ʌs]; Conventionally this name is pronounced in two syllables as eej-us, but in this play it always scans as three.
At this moment, when Theseus simply overrules Egeus, he is doing what he said he could not do in Unit 2, at line 122. It is not uncommon for comedies to resolve suddenly in favor of what feels right socially even if there is little legal basis. Perhaps Theseus is not acting as a judge at this moment but is saving Egeus' dignity by taking responsibility instead of pointing out that, without Demetrius, his case has embarrassingly dissolved.
This is another true "short" line, standing alone with only five syllables. If interesting business occurred in Unit 2, at line 124, the audience will find this a moment of great tension wondering what Hippolyta will do. It is a very effective moment to delay with a pause.
Optional Horn Flourish
If a trumpet flourish signals Theseus' exit at the end of Unit 2, then a consistent choice might use a horn flourish for his exit here.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
undistinguish'ble: uhn-dih-sting-gwish-bool [ʌn dɪˈstɪŋ gwɪʃ bʊl]; The final two syllables of this very long construction are elided.
turnèd: turn-ed [ˈtɜr nəd]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable.
Demetr'us: dih-mee-truhs [dɪˈmi trəs]; As here, this character's name often occupies only three syllables. This is more common in the play than the four-syllable form.
Just before this line, many editions include a longer start to this speech. Both quarto editions begin with a half-line:
"Are you sure"
"That we are awake?" begins the next line before concluding with the text in this edition.
On the basis of the metrical irregularity caused in both lines, Gary Taylor argues (and this edition accepts) that this alternative was a false start by the author in composition, and that it was intended to be deleted as—in fact—it is in the First Folio. Since the speech makes sense without this beginning, his logic seems impeccable.
Editors who use the quarto reading ignore the resulting lack of metricality.
Optional Rustic Music
If a rustic theme song is employed at the beginning of Unit 6, it often returns again here.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Optional Trumpet Flourish
If a trumpet flourish signals Theseus' entrance at the top of the show, then it might be repeated again here.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
First syllable stress, like "antic": an-tik [ˈæn tɪk]. Q2 and the Folio spell the word "anticke."
Taking into account the allowable variations, this is actually a regular line, but it employs a tail both here at the caesura and at the line end so it has twelve syllables and a difficult rhythm. Late in Shakespeare's career such complicated metrics become common, but this is very unusual in this early play.
Helen (of Troy) was, according to legend, the most beautiful woman in the world. Her abduction by the Trojan prince, Paris, was allegedly the cause of the Trojan War.
This semi-mythological figure was a character of much fascination for the Elizabethan audience. At roughly the same time as Shakespeare was writing Midsummer, her mesmerizing beauty was celebrated in biggest hit on the London stage, Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, with the line “Was this the face that launched a thousand ships?”
Ironically, Theseus may know exactly whereof he speaks because an alternate legend holds that in his youth, like Paris, he also attempted to abduct her with the intent to make her his wife, although his effort was ultimately foiled.
"The Rape of Helen" (detail), by Guido Reni. Photo by Wikimedia User Coyau
This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.
heav'n: hevn [ˈhɛvn]; In Elizabethan practice this word was shortened to "hea'en" by eliminating the central consonant, rendering a pronunciation like "hen." Because this is no longer easily decodable by a modern audience, performance practice is now to retain the "v" but bleed the final "n" into it.
1. Because that is difficult to do, some actors choose to scan the line, "Doth glance from heaven t'Earth." This is not authentic practice, as the pattern of stressed syllables is amiss, but it is a practical solution sometimes adopted for the sake of clarity.
2. This shortening probably applies to the repeated appearance of the word at the end of the line, but it is alternatively possible to scan the line as having a "tail," and for clarity sake that is the usual performance practice in contemporary productions.
imaginatïon: ih-ma-juh-ney-see-uhn [ɪˌmæ dʒəˈneɪ si ən]; For the sake of the meter, the final syllable of the contemporary pronunciation is divided into two syllables, following occasional Elizabethan practice.
This is not always observed in contemporary production, but with the renewed interest in original pronunciation it is becoming more common.
adm'rable: ad-mruh-buhl [ˈæd mrə bəl]; The two central syllables are elided, as is still common in many British dialects
The masque was a royal entertainment, in the form of an elaborate pageant, popular in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. The line between audience and participants was blurred, as the royal patrons often participated as dancers in these spectacular musical allegories.
Originally a kind of impromptu variety show built around a theme introduced by a masked figure (hence the name) consisting mostly of standard songs and dances fitting with the evening’s classical subject, by Shakespeare’s time these had developed elaborate theatrical plots with original songs, dances and musical interludes.
Shakespeare’s contemporary, Ben Jonson, wrote a number of these for the English court, which were designed by Inigo Jones. Of particular interest is one called Oberon, the Faery Prince, in which Crown Prince Henry played the title role. (The design for his costume can be seen in the List of Characters.)
In Oberon the masque opens in front of a rocky outcropping. This was the original design:
Inigo Jones design
This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.
This painting split apart to reveal a scrim showing the exterior of Oberon’s palace:
Inigo Jones design
This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.
This was subsequently backlit, rendering it transparent, to show the interior of the palace. It was on this final set that the evening ended with a dance featuring Prince Henry and his mother, Queen Anne.
Inigo Jones design
This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.
Short versions of masques are inserted in many plays of the period, including Shakespeare’s The Tempest, Henry VIII and the one that concludes Midsummer.
tort'ring: tawr-chring [ˈtɔr tʃrɪŋ]; This is yet another case where the isolated middle schwa is eliminated.
Egeus] F
In the Folio, this line is changed to "Call Egeus," and throughout the rest of this scene all of Philostrate's lines are assigned to him. This alternative is discussed in the essay, "About the Text."
Reassignment of speeches] F
In the Folio text Egeus (in the role that this edition assigns to Philostrate) hands the list of entertainments to Lysander to read. All the titles that appear in this speech in bold type are read aloud by Lysander, with Theseus commenting on them, rather than Theseus doing both tasks himself. In modern production, it is common to reassign the titles to one or more speakers. A longer discussion of this change appears in the discussion of editorial principles.
Centaurs are mythical beasts, half horse and half human. A story in Ovid’s Metamorphoses tells of drunken centaurs trying to kidnap the bride of the king of the Lapith people from her own wedding, but the Lapith men fought them off. Although the mechanicals may have picked a poor subject for a wedding celebration, this one would have been even worse.
A metope from the Parthenon, now in the British Museum
Photo by the editor. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Athenᵞan: uh-theen-yuhn [əˈθin yən]; Shortened to three syllables by bleeding the last two syllables together. This is the usual form of this frequently-used word in this play.
In yet another case of an inappropriate subject for a wedding entertainment, again taken from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, this references the story of the death of Orpheus at the hands of the ecstatic followers of Dionysus (also known as Bacchus) for rejecting the worship of their god and declining the love of women.
Albrecht Dürer, The Death of Orpheus, pen and ink drawing, 1494 (Kunsthalle, Hamburg).
This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.
The nine (= thrice three) muses were the inspirational goddesses of the arts. Even today the practice of the arts is associated with poverty, and apparently Theseus (who, according to the mechanicals, intends to reward the performers at his wedding feast well) does not wish to be lectured on the lack of support for the arts.
The nine muses on a Roman sarcophagus (second century AD) — Louvre, Paris
Photo released to the public domain by its creator, Wikimedia user Jastrow (Marie-Lan Nguyen).
tedᵞous: tee-juhs [ˈti dʒəs]
The final two syllables bleed together.
Tedᵞous: tee-juhs [ˈti dʒəs]
The final two syllables bleed together.
wondërous: wuhn-der-uhs [ˈwʌn dər əs]; Utilizing a pronunciation that possibly derives from Shakespeare's rural roots, this word gains a medial glide vowel and expands to three syllables.
strange black] Taylor; sable] McDonald; swarthy] Dyce
In the Oxford Shakespeare, Gary Taylor considers, but rejects, the three-syllable pronunciation of "wondrous" this edition adopts because at all other points in the canon this word is bisyllabic. (Using an alternative pronunciation is well within Shakespeare's standard practice, however.) Taylor instead diagnoses corruption of the text and proposes a word is missing in the line. After listing a range of possibilities he settles on "black," even though it disturbs the meter. (This solution dates back as far as Edward Capell, but Taylor makes the modern case.)
Russ McDonald (Pelican) makes a similar emendation by replacing "strange," with the two-syllable word, "sable." Because it is metrical, this solution works better in performances.
Chaudhuri (Arden3) accepts Alexander Dyce's emendation to "swarthy" for similar reasons.
tedᵞous: tee-juhs [ˈti dʒəs]
The final two syllables bleed together.
As frequently happens in later plays, but only very rarely in early plays like this, Shakespeare has inserted a short, blunt prose line in the middle of a long passage of verse. (Because this line is seven syllables long, a few scholars scan this as another case of headless iambic tetrameter, and relate it to Theseus' doppelgänger, Oberon's, use of that form. The rhythm does not scan evenly, however, and it is unlikely that was the intent.)
nuptuäl: nuhp-shoo-uhl [ˈnʌp ʃu əl]; Having warned against the common three-syllable corruption several times earlier in the text, here it must be acknowledged that the scansion indicates that it should, indeed, be used.
"Over" becomes "o'er": awr-chahrjd [ɔrˈtʃɑrdʒd]. It is a conventional contraction to shorten "over" to "o'er," even when it appears as part of a longer word.
In all early versions of the text, the first two words of the next line - "noble respect" - are appended here, making this an Alexandrine, but making the next line completely irregular. This edition agrees with the editors who propose treating this line as regular tetrameter, and the next line as regular with a "tail," as the most metrically clear presentation of these complicated, and possibly corrupt, lines.
purposèd: pur-puh-sed [ˈpɜr pə sɛd]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable.
perᵞods: peer-yuhdz [ˈpɪər yədz]. Bisyllabic.
This four syllable line is free-standing, presumably to allow time for Quince to make a comic entrance in the space of the "empty" six syllables.
Trumpet Flourish
In keeping with standard theatrical practice in the actual playhouse, a Folio-only stage direction tells us the Mechanicals have a trumpet flourish to start their performance, which (of course) may not be as competent as the real one at the play’s start.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
This speech is punctuated on the page in the manner in which Quince "incorrectly" delivers it with pauses in all the wrong places. To help clarify the nature of his comic mistakes, Harold F. Brooks printed the "correctly" punctuated speech thus:
"If we offend, it is with our good will
That you should think we come, not to offend,
But with good will to show our simple skill:
This is the true beginning of our end.
Consider then, we come—but in despite
We do not come—as minding to content you;
Our true intent is all for your delight:
We are not here that you should here repent you.
The actors are at hand..."
Trumpet Flourish
In another Folio-only stage direction, a trumpet flourish is again indicated here. In modern performance, the flourish is sometimes played at Unit 40, or played here, but rarely both. The quartos do not indicate either instance.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
beautᵞous: byoo-tyuhs [ˈbyu tyəs]; The final two syllables of "beauteous" bleed together.
The emphasis is on the second syllable, but this is not (as commonly supposed) an archaic accent. It is just a joke about how the rhyme is being forced by a poor writer.
mulb'ry: muhl-bree [ˈmʌl bri]. As is still common in many British dialects, this word is bi–, rather than tri–, syllabic.
The entire plot of Pyramus and Thisbe is presented in dumb show (pantomime) before it is acted out.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
The emphasis falls here on the second syllable for comic effect. The line also puns on the double meaning of "sinister," because it is the Latin word for "left."
stand'st: standst [stændst]; Monosyllabic after the final vowel sound is eliminated.
curtᵞous: kur-tyuhs [ˈkɜr tyʌs]; Bisyllabic. the word "courteous" occupies only two syllables in the scansion. Many words with a central syllable consisting of only one vowel sound were, in Elizabethan English, interchangeably pronounced as trisyllabic or (by losing their middle vowel) bisyllabic. (The word "violet," at line 253 in Unit 11, is another example.) The scansion tells us the latter is the case here.
This scene will repeatedly pun on the Elizabethan use of "stones" as slang for "testicles."
The bawdy implication of "stones" to suggest "testicles" continues here, probably because Snout is creating the "chink" by holding his fingers somewhere near his groin. This low humor will reach its peak at "kissed the wall's hole" at line 194, and sometimes continues with "discharged my part" at line 197.
up in thee] F ; now again Qq
The reading from the quartos is nonsense, and does not rhyme. All editors accept the Folio's correction.
Bottom is mispronouncing the name Leander, the protagonist of yet another myth retold by Ovid. The myth was a particularly popular and recognizable in Shakespeare’s time due to a recent (and racy) narrative poem by Christopher Marlowe on the subject.
Marlowe’s poem in mostly concerned with the seduction of a priestess of Venus, named Hero, by a lusty young man who would swim the Hellespont nightly to make forbidden love to her. The myth ends tragically, when Leander gets disoriented on a stormy night and drowns after losing his way. Hero throws herself from high tower to join him in death. Shakespeare’s joke is that as references in the wedding play, and as subjects of romantic pledges, they are completely inappropriate.
Hero grieving over the dead Leander. Painting by Jan van der Hoecke.
This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less. This photographic reproduction is also considered to be in the public domain in the United States.
Flute’s reply is probably meant to reference Hero, Leander’s beloved. She instead, however, says “Helen,” invoking thoughts of Helen of Troy who was notoriously unfaithful to her husband, Menelaus, and whose infidelity caused the Trojan war. The implication is exactly the opposite of the faithfulness Thisbe is pledging.
Helen and Menelaus depicted on a red-figure krater, c.450-440 BCE, now located in the Lourve.
After the end of Trojan War, Menelaus is reunited with Helen. He intends to kill her for her infidelity, but struck by her beauty he drops his sword, making the entire war pointless. A flying Eros and Aphrodite watch.
This photograph was released into the public domain by its creator, Wikimedia contributor Jastrow
Bottom is again mangling the names (and significance) of a mythological couple drawn from Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Flute will repeat the mistake in the very next line.
Quince’s play is citing Cephalus and Procris, a mythological pair whose relationship had many missteps. Cephalus was abducted by Eos, goddess of the dawn, with whom he had an extended affair – and a child – before returning to his wife. As Cephalus was leaving her, Eos planted the idea that Procris had probably not waited faithfully for his return. Worried by this slander, Cephalus tested Procris’ fidelity by attempting to seduce her in disguise: She immediately succumbed.
After reconciling yet again, Procris developed doubts of her own about her husband’s fidelity when he proposed a hunting trip, so she followed and spied on him. Seeing a rustling behind a bush, Cephalus thought he was throwing his spear at wild game, but instead impaled and killed his wife. In short, they are a terrible example by which to swear one’s love.
A Satyr mourning over a Nymph, c.1495, Piero di Cosimo
In a version of the myth, a satyr found and mourned over the dead Procris, and this is probably the subject of this painting.
Photo by the editor.
dischargèd: dis-chahr-jed [dɪsˈtʃɑr dʒɛd]; The past tense is sounded as a separate syllable.
wall down] Mowat; Moon used Qq, moral down F
Both the reading from the quartos and the Folio correction are corrupt. That it is the wall and not the moon being discussed seems obvious from Demetrius' reply. The Folio reading of the second word at least makes sense when paired with wall. It is not easy to see how anyone could have mistaken "wall down" for the words "moon used," even given terrible handwriting, but no plausible suggestion has come forward to explain the quartos' bizarre wording.
Monosyllabic: air [ɛər]. Utilizing the common poetic convention of eliminating the middle V sound this word is reduced to a single syllable. (In Q1, it is spelled "ere," making clear the application of the "Missing V" rule, but since this is a prose line it makes little difference and is not always observed.)
hornèd: hawr-ned [ˈhɔr nɛd]; The past tense is sounded.
hornèd: hawr-ned [ˈhɔr nɛd]; The past tense is sounded.
inth': inth [ɪnθ]. These two words contract into a single syllable.
Thisbe frightened by the lion, in whimsical designs by Ming Chen.
Courtesy of Classic TheaterWorks, production directed by Kurt Daw
glitt'ring: gli-tring [ˈglɪ trɪŋ]. As is still common in everyday usage, the middle vowel is eliminated.
gleams] Staunton; beams QqF
All early versions of this play repeat the word "beams" from two lines earlier here. The Victorian editor Charles Knight suggested that even when writing imitation "bad" verse, Shakespeare would not have done so. "Gleams" both rhymes and furthers the alliteration. Samuel Weller Singer first accepted this suggestion, which is now widely incorporated.
From this point on Pyramus and Thisbe is mostly written in a very old-fashioned verse style, iambic heptameter, commonly referred to as "fourteeners," as each line has fourteen syllables. This was the predominate verse mode before Shakespeare and his contemporary, Christopher Marlowe, made blank verse the medium of English drama. In this scene, it is being used for the purposes of parody, as it was hopelessly out of fashion by the time Midsummer was written.
When arranged into a quatrain, as it is here, it is separated into alternating lines of eight and then six syllables. This form is also called "ballad stanza" or "common meter." Shakespeare's contemporaries sometimes called it "eight-and-six."
This reference is to the mythological incarnations of fate as three sisters (known in Greek as the Moirai, usually translated in English as the "furies", or as the "fates" as they are in the very next line. Flute will refer to them, more abstractly as the "Sisters Three" at line 294 in this scene).
The first is Clotho, whose name means “spinner,” who creates the “thread of life” at her spinning wheel. The second is Lachesis (allotter), who measures the length of one’s life, and the final one is Atropos (inevitability) who cuts the thread, metaphorically causing death.
The three Moirai. Relief, grave of Alexander von der Mark (de) by Johann Gottfried Schadow. Old National Gallery, Berlin.
Placed in the public domain by photographer Andreas Praefcke.
omit all to the end of the speech] F
The Folio deletes everything in this speech from this point on, presumably because the 1606 law against using blasphemy on stage was being violated.
Thisbe starts into her lament.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Bergomask, a Rustic Dance
In another of the major musical incidents of the play, the mechanicals perform a folk dance or a jig at this point. They sometime supply their own accompaniment, which may be a simple as rythmic clapping, but the dance is usually energetic and successfully entertaining.
A more extended discussion of this and all music cues in the play can be found in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
This twenty line speech is rendered in the style which Shakespeare uses most often in the play for the puck: iambic tetrameter. All but the last line also begin with the characteristic silent beat called a catalexis. The palpable tension this causes, and the sense of relief and finality when the speech resolves with a line containing all eight beats, is demonstrated here as clearly as anywhere in the canon.
lion] Rowe; lions QF
Shakespeare's earliest editor noted that the plural makes little sense here, and no modern editor now disputes it.
behowls] Theobald; beholds QF
Although the version of the text printed in all early modern editions makes sense, one of the earliest textual scholars, Lewis Theobald, surmised that Shakespeare had coined a new word—behowls—which was "corrected" at some point. His view has won wide acceptance.
Hecate (pronounced as two syllables here: (/ˈhɛkɪt/) is the goddess with a triple form known as Proserpina when she is in Hades, Diana when she is on earth, and Phoebe when she is in the heavens. Especially in those latter two forms, she is closely associated with Tytania throughout this play.
Triple-formed representation of Hecate. Marble, Roman copy after an original of the Hellenistic period.
Released into the Public Domain by photographer identified as Jastrow on Wikimedia.
Foll'wing: fol-wing [ˈfɒl wɪŋ] This word becomes bisyllabic, using the principle by which when the central syllable of a three-syllable word is comprised only of a schwa [ə], it can be eliminated to fit the meter.
Puck "beholds" or "behowls" the moon.
Courtesy of SUNY-New Paltz, production directed by Kurt Daw
Like Unit 50, this scene is rendered in the style which Shakespeare uses most often in the play for supernatural beings: iambic tetrameter. The vast majority of lines in the unit also begin with the characteristic silent beat called a catalexis.
glimm'ring: glim-ring [ˈglɪm rɪŋ]; "Glimmering" becomes bisyllabic through elimination of its middle vowel.
This is another example of the central syllable of a three-syllable word, comprised only of a schwa [ə], being elided to fit the meter.
Masque
The play concludes with a ceremony of blessing in the form of a theatrical masque, or pageant. The fairies, now in harmony with each other, gather to bless the marriages of the three couples. This is the most complex music and dance sequence in the play, with multiple options about how it might be accomplished.
See the extended discussion of this section of the text, and its many possibilities, found in the essay "Music and Dance in Midsummer" in the "Resources and References" section following the play.
Reassignment of speeches] F
In the Folio text, all the material in this speech is labeled "The Song." It is not assigned to any particular singer. In performance now it is usually shared by the full company, as it probably was in the original performances. A longer discussion of the redistribution appears in the section on Editorial Principles.
blessèd: bles-ed [ˈblɛs ɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies two syllables.
Although still less preferred than the one-syllable alternative, this is one of the few expanded endings that have survived into modern times and is still in use.
Despisèd: dih-spahy-zed [dɪˈspaɪ zɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies three syllables.
Although sense can be made of this and the following line, the grammar is troubling. Staunton (after Singer) and many subsequent critics remove the stop at the end of the previous line, then reverse the order of this and the following line. It is, in fact, easier to follow in performance with this change.
unearnèd: uhn-urn-ned [ʌnˈɜr nɛd]; The ending is expanded so that this word occupies three syllables.
